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31</head><body><div id="__nuxt"><!--[--><div></div><div><header class="site-header container"><div><a href="/"><strong>Home</strong></a></div><nav><a href="/blog" class="muted" style="margin-right:12px;">Blog</a><a href="/publications" class="muted" style="margin-right:12px;">Publications</a><a href="/contact" class="muted">Contact</a></nav><label class="switch" style="margin-left:24px;" data-v-ae304082><input type="checkbox" data-v-ae304082><span class="slider" data-v-ae304082><span class="icon" data-v-ae304082>âï¸</span></span></label></header><main class="container"><h1>Blog</h1><!--[--><div class="blog-section"><h2 class="section-heading">AI and philosophy</h2><!--[--><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/the-docile-learner" class="">The Docile Learner</a></h3><div class="muted">2026-04-22 · <span>foucault, deleuze, canguilhem, education, machine learning, knowledge tracing, AI, neurodivergence, philosophy</span></div><p>There is a scene that repeats itself, at this hour, in several million browser tabs. A learner sits before a screen. The screen asks a question. The learner answers. Somewhere â in a server that nobody has ever visited, in a Dutch or Irish data centre cooled by the North Sea â a probability is updated. A number that did not exist a moment ago now exists, and it stands for the learner. The number is small: a scalar between zero and one, or a vector of a few dozen dimensions. But it is, for the duration of the session, who the learner is to the machine. The next question will be selected on its basis. The next hint, withheld or granted, on its basis. The next suggested lesson, the next notification, the congratulatory animation of a green owl or a red flame â all of it flows from this number.</p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/prediction-orthogonality-and-schizophrenia" class="">Prediction Orthogonality and the Voices in Your Head</a></h3><div class="muted">2026-03-30 · <span>mechanistic interpretability, computational psychiatry, predictive processing, schizophrenia, superposition, AI safety</span></div><p></p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/on-the-economy-of-scientific-research" class="">On the Economy of Scientific Research: Optimizing Research Efficiency through Analysis of Citation Graph Dynamics</a></h3><div class="muted">2025 · <span>Citation graph, research efficiency</span></div><p>How can we strategically allocate limited research resources to maximize scientific progress? Can citation network analysis reveal the structural gaps that, when filled, accelerate knowledge creation and collaboration across disciplines?</p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/anthropomorphism-and-consent-in-the-age-of-ai" class="">Anthropomorphism and Consent in the age of AI</a></h3><div class="muted">2023-02-05 · <span>Anthropomorphism, Sexual Consent, Human-Robot Interaction, Deepfakes, Social Robots, Therapeutic Robots, Sex Robots, Moral Agency, Personhood</span></div><p>Can machines truly reciprocate human emotional bonds, or does anthropomorphism merely project meaning onto algorithmic responses? As AI becomes increasingly humanlike, how do we navigate consent, attachment, and the ethics of designing companions without consciousness?</p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/the-human-brains-behind-the-veil-of-artificial-intelligence" class="">The human brains behind the veil of Artificial Intelligence</a></h3><div class="muted">2023-02-05 · <span>Cognitive Bias, Attention Economy, Transparency, Social Media, Human-Algorithm Interaction, Psychology, Performativity</span></div><p>How do human cognitive biases and commercial incentives shape the supposedly "objective" algorithms that increasingly govern our attention, decisions, and social institutionsâand can transparency offer a path toward accountability?</p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/from-homo-sapiens-to-homo-silicus" class="">From Homo Sapiens to Homo Silicus: Analyzing gaps in emergence of sentience in machines</a></h3><div class="muted">2023-02-05 · <span>consciousness, ai, philosophy, Human & Machine, Artificial Consciousness, Artificial Intelligence</span></div><p>What are the limitations and challenges of attempting to replicate human consciousness and knowledge in AI systems, given the inherently embodied and context-dependent nature of our knowledge representations? How can philosophy help navigate the sciences of intelligence?</p></article></div><!--]--></div><div class="blog-section"><h2 class="section-heading">Spirituality and other fun stuff</h2><!--[--><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/amboise" class="">Le rôle du fleuve dans l'organisation de l'espace : carte d'Amboise</a></h3><div class="muted">2026-02-19 · <span>géographie, Loire, Amboise, territoire, tourisme, urbanisme</span></div><p>Bienvenue en Touraine, pays de Balzac, de Léonard de Vinci, des châteaux de la Loire, du saint-nicolas-de-bourgueil, du chinon et du vouvray.</p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/genealogie" class="">Psychohenealogie</a></h3><div class="muted">2020-05-05 · <span>Genealogie, science cognitive, réflexion personnelle</span></div><p>(1) Proust, du côté de chez Swann. "un édifice occupant, si lâon peut dire, un espace à quatre dimensions â la quatrième étant celle du Temps â déployant à travers les siècles son vaisseau qui, de travée en travée, de chapelle en chapelle, semblait vaincre et franchir, non pas seulement quelques mètres, mais des époques successives dâoù il sortait victorieux"</p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/nestle" class="">Nestlé : un géant mondial de l'agro-alimentaire</a></h3><div class="muted">2020-03-18 · <span>géographie, mondialisation, agroalimentaire, Nestlé, firme transnationale, développement durable</span></div><p></p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/la-vie-de-henry-brulard" class="">Analyse de La Vie de Henry Brulard</a></h3><div class="muted">2019-06-07 · <span>littérature, Stendhal, autobiographie, Romantisme, khâgne</span></div><p>Analyse littéraire de La Vie de Henry Brulard de Stendhal : la quête de soi par l'
31écriture, le dialogue entre narrateur, auteur et lecteur, et la mort du Romantisme.</p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/carl-gustav-jung" class="">L'inconscient chez Jung : une philosophie de l'âme</a></h3><div class="muted">2019-06-05 · <span>philosophie, psychanalyse, Jung, Freud, inconscient, éthique, individuation</span></div><p></p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/citations-that-i-love" class="">Citations that I love</a></h3><div class="muted">2019-06-05 · <span>citations, philosophie, inspiration</span></div><p></p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/le-soi-une-hallucination-controlee" class="">Le Soi, une hallucination contrôlée</a></h3><div class="muted">2019-06-05 · <span>conscience, perception, neurosciences, philosophie, hallucination, intelligence artificielle</span></div><p></p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/de-quelle-realite-nos-perceptions-temoignent-elles" class="">De quelle réalité nos perceptions témoignent-elles ?</a></h3><div class="muted">2019-01-16 · <span>philosophie, perception, réalité, Descartes, Kant, Lacan, Merleau-Ponty</span></div><p>Exposé philosophique sur la perception et la réalité, de Descartes à Merleau-Ponty, en passant par Hume, Kant, Wittgenstein et Lacan.</p></article></div><div><article class="post-card"><h3><a href="/blog/le-livre-manquant" class="">Le livre manquant</a></h3><div class="muted">2018-11-02 · <span>écriture, littérature, philosophie, réflexion personnelle</span></div><p>Il y aura toujours des livres manquants â qui sont les livres qui sont encore à venir.</p></article></div><!--]--></div><!--]--></main><footer class="site-footer container"><div class="muted">© Pelletreau-Duris Tom â 2025</div><div class="muted">Built with Nuxt.js</div></footer></div><!--]--></div><div id="teleports"></div>
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The two loops, or: the examination generalised",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":70,"children":71},{},[72,74,79],{"type":36,"value":73},"Twenty years ago, Kurt VanLehn described the intelligent tutoring system as a machine of two loops. An outer loop, which selects the next task. An inner loop, which runs inside the task, dispensing feedback and hints step by step. The description was offered as a technical clarification, a taxonomic gift to a field that had grown confused about its own objects. I read it as something else. I read it as the most precise description we have of a Foucauldian examination machine â not the examination as a single event (the viva, the baccalauréat, the concours) but the examination ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":75,"children":76},{},[77],{"type":36,"value":78},"dissolved into time",{"type":36,"value":80},", spread thin across every keystroke, reconstituted as the continuous medium of learning itself.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":82,"children":83},{},[84,86,91],{"type":36,"value":85},"Recall what the examination did, in the disciplinary society. It rendered the individual a describable, analysable object. It placed each person in a field of surveillance, documented her, permitted comparison, made her a ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":87,"children":88},{},[89],{"type":36,"value":90},"case",{"type":36,"value":92},". The examination combined the ceremony of power with the ritual of experiment, the deployment of force with the establishment of truth. It was, Foucault wrote, a ritualisation of that which was most banal in modern power: the fact of being seen.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":94,"children":95},{},[96,98,103],{"type":36,"value":97},"The inner loop is the examination that no longer requires a ceremony. It requires only a text box. Every step of a proof, every line of code, every conjugation of a French verb â each is an examination. Each is recorded. Each updates a number. There is no moment at which one is ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":99,"children":100},{},[101],{"type":36,"value":102},"not",{"type":36,"value":104}," being assessed; assessment is the ambient condition of the activity itself. One does not pass or fail; one is traced.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":106,"children":107},{},[108,110,115,117,122],{"type":36,"value":109},"The vocabulary has obligingly shifted to mark this. The old word was ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":111,"children":112},{},[113],{"type":36,"value":114},"testing",{"type":36,"value":116},". The new word is ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":118,"children":119},{},[120],{"type":36,"value":121},"tracing",{"type":36,"value":123},". Bayesian Knowledge Tracing. Deep Knowledge Tracing. Half-Life Regression. The student is no longer photographed at discrete intervals; she is filmed continuously, at thirty frames per second, and the film is
32what she is.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":125,"children":126},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":128,"children":130},{"id":129},"ii-the-subject-of-the-model-or-what-the-apparatus-must-presuppose",[131],{"type":36,"value":132},"II. The subject of the model, or: what the apparatus must presuppose",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":134,"children":135},{},[136,138,143,145,150],{"type":36,"value":137},"Every model of the student is a philosophical anthropology in disguise. It says: ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":139,"children":140},{},[141],{"type":36,"value":142},"this",{"type":36,"value":144}," is what a learner is, this and nothing more. The question is always worth asking â ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":146,"children":147},{},[148],{"type":36,"value":149},"what is the learner, for this system to be able to function?",{"type":36,"value":151}," â because the answer is never innocent, and the answer is never what the system says about itself.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":153,"children":154},{},[155,157,162],{"type":36,"value":156},"Consider Bayesian Knowledge Tracing, the canonical tool. It presupposes that knowledge is a set of binary variables: mastered, or not. There is no such thing as partial understanding, no such thing as the knowledge that hovers, the intuition that cannot yet be defended. A skill is a bit. It presupposes that skills are independent of one another â that knowing how to factor a polynomial tells the system nothing about whether you understand what a polynomial is. It presupposes that all students learn at the same rate: the transition probability from ignorance to mastery is a single number, fitted once, applied to every child in the cohort. It presupposes, classically, that one does not forget. It presupposes that the only thing the apparatus can see of you â the only thing it ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":158,"children":159},{},[160],{"type":36,"value":161},"needs",{"type":36,"value":163}," to see of you â is whether you got it right or wrong.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":165,"children":166},{},[167,169,174,176,181],{"type":36,"value":168},"Item Response Theory, the older and more austere cousin, presupposes something stranger still: that there is, inside you, a scalar called ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":170,"children":171},{},[172],{"type":36,"value":173},"ability",{"type":36,"value":175},", denoted θ, and that your performance on any question is a monotonic function of this scalar and of the question's difficulty, plus a little noise. You ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":177,"children":178},{},[179],{"type":36,"value":180},"are",{"type":36,"value":182}," a number, in IRT. The number is estimable, invariant across populations (in principle), separable from the items on which it is measured (in principle). It is a remarkable theoretical achievement, and it is an ontological commitment of staggering confidence. An entire person, for the purposes of the examination, is one real-valued parameter. And this model â let us be clear â is the model that sits beneath the SAT, the GRE, the TOEFL, PISA. It is the model by which tens of millions of lives are sorted each year. It works. By its own criteria, it works extraordinarily well.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":184,"children":185},{},[186,188,193],{"type":36,"value":187},"What does it mean that it works? It means the apparatus has successfully produced a population for which it is true. The students have learned â and here is the reflexive turn I want to insist on â to ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":189,"children":190},{},[191],{"type":36,"value":192},"be",{"type":36,"value":194}," the kind of subject the model requires. They have learned to answer in units the machine can score. They have learned to fail in ways the machine can interpret. They have learned, most profoundly, to accept that θ is a thing they have.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":196,"children":197},{},[198],{"type":36,"value":199},"This is not a conspiracy. No one designed it. It is simply what an apparatus of that scale, operating over that duration, does. Foucault's point about the prison, the clinic, the barracks was never that anyone was scheming. It was that the architecture thinks on behalf of those within it, and that the thinking becomes, in time, indistinguishable from their own.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":201,"children":202},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":204,"children":206},{"id":205},"iii-the-pastoral-algorithm-or-duolingo-and-the-half-life-of-you",[207],{"type":36,"value":208},"III. The pastoral algorithm, or: Duolingo and the half-life of you",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":210,"children":211},{}
32,[212],{"type":36,"value":213},"Duolingo is the most beautiful recent instance of this because it is the friendliest. Its mascot is an owl. Its interface is chirpy. Its underlying model, for the period when they published about it, was called Half-Life Regression â a predictor of the probability that you will recall a word, given the time since you last saw it, fitted by regression over thirteen million user traces. The paper, by Settles and Meeder (2016), is a small masterpiece of its genre. It reports an operational lift of 12% in daily engagement.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":215,"children":216},{},[217,219,224],{"type":36,"value":218},"Notice what has happened. The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve, a psychological finding from 1885 about the decay of nonsense-syllable memory, has become an industrial-scale scheduling engine for attention. Your forgetting is the raw material. Each word you learn has a half-life; when the half-life approaches, you are notified. The notification is friendly, the streak must be kept, the owl is mildly passive-aggressive. You return. The model was right about when you would forget â or rather, the model, by acting on its prediction, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":220,"children":221},{},[222],{"type":36,"value":223},"made you return at the moment of predicted forgetting",{"type":36,"value":225},", which is a slightly different and more interesting thing. It is a self-fulfilling psychometrics. The forgetting curve, having been modelled, now disciplines the time of your day.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":227,"children":228},{},[229,231,236,238,243],{"type":36,"value":230},"This is what Foucault called ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":232,"children":233},{},[234],{"type":36,"value":235},"pastoral power",{"type":36,"value":237},", translated into the cloud. Pastoral power individualises (it cares about each sheep), it totalises (it governs the whole flock), it extracts truth (each sheep must confess), and its justification is always the salvation â the ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":239,"children":240},{},[241],{"type":36,"value":242},"learning",{"type":36,"value":244},", here â of those it governs. The pastor does not compel; he solicits. He does not forbid; he invites you to keep your streak. He is gentle. He is always available. He never sleeps. He holds, in a growing file, the shape of your forgetting.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":246,"children":247},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":249,"children":251},{"id":250},"iv-delegation-or-the-subject-who-no-longer-wants-to-be-examined",[252],{"type":36,"value":253},"IV. Delegation, or: the subject who no longer wants to be examined",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":255,"children":256},{},[257],{"type":36,"value":258},"And now a new figure has entered, and it is worth pausing over, because I think it is genuinely novel and not yet well understood. The large language model is not a tutoring system. It does not have the two loops. It does not maintain a student model. It will answer your question whether you have the prerequisites or not; it will solve your problem for you, if you ask it to; it will hallucinate, with complete confidence, an answer that is wrong in ways you are not equipped to detect. It is, from the standpoint of the pedagogical apparatus, a catastrophe. From the standpoint of the student, it is often a relief.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":260,"children":261},{},[262,264,269,271,276,278,283,284,289],{"type":36,"value":263},"A recent study â Shen and Tamkin, at Anthropic â watched twenty-three programmers try to learn a new library with and without AI assistance. They clustered the behaviour into six patterns. Three of the patterns produced quiz scores below forty percent. Those three patterns shared a structural feature: the learner had ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":265,"children":266},{},[267],{"type":36,"value":268},"delegated",{"type":36,"value":270}," the cognitive work to the machine. They had asked it to write the code. They had asked it to fix the bug. They had asked it, iteratively, to debug its own output. They finished the task quickly, often impeccably. They did not, afterwards, know what they had done. The other three patterns â the ones that preserved learning â all involved the learner asking the model to ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":272,"children":273},{},[274],{"type":36,"value":275},"explain",{"type":36,"value":277},", to ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":279,"children":280},{},[281],{"type":36,"value":282},"decompose",{"type":36,"value":277},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":285,"children":286},{},[287],{"type":36,"value":288},"check her own understanding",{"type":36,"value":290},". Same tool. Opposite outcome.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":292,"children":293},{},[294,296,301,303,308],{"type":36,"value":295},"I do not think the interesting claim here is the obvious one, which is that students should not use AI to do their homework. That is true and has already been said a hundred times. The interesting claim is the Foucauldian one: the large language model has given the student, for the first time in the history of mass education, a ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":297,"children":298},{},[299],{"type":36,"value":300},"way out of the examination",{"type":36,"value":302},". Not a way to cheat on it â cheating is a move inside the game â but a way to render the examination structurally obsolete by delegating the act that the examination was meant to certify. The two-loop apparatus of VanLehn assumed a student who was trying to acquire the skill. The inner loop made sense because mastery was the goal. If mastery is no longer the goal â if the goal is only ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":304,"children":305},{},[306],{"type":36,"value":307},"output",{"type":36,"value":309},", the essay, the working code, the completed exercise â then the inner loop is a humiliation, a pedantic slowness that the student is right to escape.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":311,"children":312},{},[313,315,320],{"type":36,"value":314},"The apparatus has not yet caught up. It still tries to trace. It still updates its Bayesian mastery estimates based on a response that, increasingly, was not produced by the student at all. The number that stands for the learner, in the server in the North Sea, is tracking a subject that is partially absent. What it is tracking, in many cases, is the learner's skill at ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":316,"children":317},{},[318],{"type":36,"value":319},"prompting",{"type":36,"value":321}," â a skill which the apparatus has no concept for, which is not in the model, which will eventually require a new model, and a new science of the prompter, and a new regime of examination.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":323,"children":324},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":326,"children":328},{"id":327},"v-on-scaffolding-and-its-fading",[329],{"type":36,"value":330},"V. On scaffolding, and its fading",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":332,"children":333},{},[334,336,341,343,348],{"type":36,"value":335},"There is a concept in the learning sciences called ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":337,"children":338},{},[339],{"type":36,"value":340},"scaffolding",{"type":36,"value":342},", borrowed from Vygotsky through Bruner. The idea is lovely. An expert provides temporary support, calibrated to the edge of what the learner cannot yet do alone, and withdraws it â ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":344,"children":345},{},[346],{"type":36,"value":347},"fades",{"type":36,"value":349}," it â as the learner internalises the skill. The scaffold exists in order to be dismantled. A pedagogy in which the scaffold is never withdrawn is not a pedagogy; it is a crutch, a dependency, a regression in the technical sense.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":351,"children":352},{},[353],{"type":36,"value":354},"What is an AI coding assistant, when it writes the function for you, if not a scaffold that refuses to fade? Or rather: a scaffold that the student refuses to let fade? The problem is not the scaffold. Scaffolding is how anyone ever learned anything. The problem is the historically unprecedented ease with which the scaffold can now be kept permanently in place, the way a person in 2026 can go through an entire computer science degree without ever having to sit, alone, with an error message for more than forty seconds. The inner loop of the tutoring system, in its classical form, was a regulated scaffold: it knew when to withhold. The large language model is a scaffold with
32no theory of withholding. It gives, because giving is what it was trained to do, because the reward signal in its training approximated helpfulness, and helpfulness, operationalised, means: do not make the user struggle.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":356,"children":357},{},[358,360,365],{"type":36,"value":359},"There is a deep irony here. The entire research programme of intelligent tutoring â all those Bayesian networks, all those carefully calibrated hint policies, all those papers about productive struggle and the zone of proximal development â was precisely about ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":361,"children":362},{},[363],{"type":36,"value":364},"when to withhold",{"type":36,"value":366},". It was a science of pedagogical parsimony. And it has been outflanked, in the consumer market, by a technology whose defining feature is that it does not withhold anything from anyone, ever.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":368,"children":369},{},[370,372,377],{"type":36,"value":371},"The student who masters this new situation â the student who will be, in some sense, the subject of the next educational apparatus â is the one who imposes the scaffold's fading on ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":373,"children":374},{},[375],{"type":36,"value":376},"herself",{"type":36,"value":378},". Who, when the AI offers the code, asks for the explanation instead. Who uses the model as a Socratic interlocutor and not as a vending machine. This is a kind of ascesis, in the old sense: a self-imposed discipline, a care of the self. It is not automatic. It cuts against the grain of the tool. It has to be learned, and it has to be learned without an examination apparatus to enforce it, because the examination apparatus is the thing the tool has outflanked.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":380,"children":381},{},[382],{"type":36,"value":383},"What an astonishing pedagogical moment. We have arrived, by the most circuitous technological route, at the Stoic problem. Will you govern yourself, when nothing external compels you to?",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":385,"children":386},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":388,"children":390},{"id":389},"vi-on-the-number-that-stands-for-you",[391],{"type":36,"value":392},"VI. On the number that stands for you",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":394,"children":395},{},[396,398,403,405,409,411,415,417,422],{"type":36,"value":397},"I want to end where I began, with the scalar in the server. It is worth being precise about what it is, because the critique that says \"we have reduced the student to a number\" is both true and boring. The student was already reduced to a number by the SAT, by GPA, by class rank. The question is not whether reduction occurs; reduction is what institutions do. The question is ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":399,"children":400},{},[401],{"type":36,"value":402},"which",{"type":36,"value":404}," number, fitted by ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":406,"children":407},{},[408],{"type":36,"value":402},{"type":36,"value":410}," procedure, under ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":412,"children":413},{},[414],{"type":36,"value":402},{"type":36,"value":416}," hidden assumptions, with ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":418,"children":419},{},[420],{"type":36,"value":421},"what",{"type":36,"value":423}," feedback loop onto the thing it claims to measure.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":425,"children":426},{},[427],{"type":36,"value":428},"The hidden assumptions of BKT: mastery is binary, skills are independent, students are exchangeable, one does not forget, guessing is stationary, the knowledge-component tagging is correct. Every one of these is, in the general case, false. The model works anyway, sometimes, for the narrow purpose of predicting the next response, because the world conspires to make it approximately true inside the narrow slice of activity the model observes. The student who finishes the drill has, for the system's purposes, mastered the skill. Whether she has mastered it in any sense that matters a year later â in any sense that transfers to a problem she has not seen before â the model does not ask, because the model was not built to ask.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":430,"children":431},{},[432,434,439,441,446,448,453],{"type":36,"value":433},"The hidden assumption of IRT: you are, in the relevant respect, a scalar. A point on a line. The line has been calibrated against a population, and
32your position on it determines what the institution does with you. There is nothing ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":435,"children":436},{},[437],{"type":36,"value":438},"wrong",{"type":36,"value":440}," with this, in the way there is nothing wrong with the metre or the kilogramme. It is a measurement convention. But the measurement convention for mass does not change the mass of what is weighed. The measurement convention for student ability has, over fifty years, produced populations of students who experience themselves through the scalar, who describe themselves as being ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":442,"children":443},{},[444],{"type":36,"value":445},"at",{"type":36,"value":447}," a certain level, who orient their study toward moving the scalar upward. The measurement, in the human case, is not separable from the measured. This is the specifically Foucauldian twist, and it is why the question ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":449,"children":450},{},[451],{"type":36,"value":452},"what model does the apparatus use",{"type":36,"value":454}," is never merely a technical question.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":456,"children":457},{},[458,460,465,467,472],{"type":36,"value":459},"The docile learner, then, is not a person who has been coerced. She is a person who has been ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":461,"children":462},{},[463],{"type":36,"value":464},"modelled",{"type":36,"value":466},", who has been invited to recognise herself in the model, who has â often gratefully, often with real relief at having been ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":468,"children":469},{},[470],{"type":36,"value":471},"seen",{"type":36,"value":473}," at all â accepted the model as an image of herself. The green owl sends her a notification at the hour of her predicted forgetting. The quiz question is selected by the algorithm because her estimated θ places it in her zone of proximal development. The AI assistant completes her function because it has inferred, from the context, that this is the completion she would have written herself. Each of these interventions is, individually, a kindness. Each is a reduction of friction. Each is a small act of pastoral care.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":475,"children":476},{},[477],{"type":36,"value":478},"Together, they constitute a form of life. Whether it is a form of life in which learning â in the old, difficult, self-transforming sense â still takes place is an empirical question. It is also, I think, a political question, and a question about what kind of people we are trying to become. I do not think the answer is given in advance. But I do think it is worth noticing that the answer will be given, in the main, by the people who design the models, and that those people are currently, at this hour, updating parameters.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":480,"children":481},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":483,"children":485},{"id":484},"vii-the-norm-tightens-or-what-becomes-of-the-child-who-does-not-fit",[486],{"type":36,"value":487},"VII. The norm tightens, or: what becomes of the child who does not fit",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":489,"children":490},{},[491,493,498,500,505],{"type":36,"value":492},"I want to close by following a thread that I have left implicit until now. Every predictive model of a learner is built on a statistical population. θ is a position on a line calibrated against a reference group. The transition probabilities of BKT are fit to a cohort. Half-Life Regression learns its coefficients from thirteen million users. The model is, in the exact sense, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":494,"children":495},{},[496],{"type":36,"value":497},"the norm made operational",{"type":36,"value":499}," â not as an ideal to which students are asked to conform (this was the old disciplinary mode, the schoolmaster at the blackboard, the ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":501,"children":502},{},[503],{"type":36,"value":504},"bonne conduite",{"type":36,"value":506}," marked in red ink) but as a probability distribution whose tails are, by construction, sparsely populated and poorly served.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":508,"children":509},{},[510,512,517,519,524,526,531,533,538],{"type":36,"value":511},"Canguilhem taught us to be careful with the word ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":513,"children":514},{},[515],{"type":36,"value":516},"normal",{"type":36,"value":518},". It names two things which are usually conflated: the normative, what ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":520,"children":521},{},[522],{"type":36,"value":523},"ought",{"type":36,"value":525}," to be, and the statistical, what ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":527,"children":528},{},[529],{"type":36,"value":530},"is on average",{"type":36,"value":532},". The great trick of the modern era, he said, was to slide from the second to the first without anyone noticing the movement. The apparatus of knowledge tracing does this
32slide at machine speed, millions of times per second. The model's prediction of what the student will do next becomes, by feeding back through the hint policy and the task selector, a soft instruction about what she ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":534,"children":535},{},[536],{"type":36,"value":537},"should",{"type":36,"value":539}," do next. The students whose behaviour lies near the mean of the training distribution receive a pedagogy exquisitely tuned to them. The students in the tails receive a pedagogy tuned to someone else.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":541,"children":542},{},[543,545,550,552,557],{"type":36,"value":544},"There is a more recent and more precise way of saying this, which comes from Deleuze. The disciplinary society moulded subjects; the society of control ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":546,"children":547},{},[548],{"type":36,"value":549},"modulates",{"type":36,"value":551}," them. Mould is a rigid form; modulation is a continuously adjusting parameter. The student of the examination era was shaped against a template. The student of the knowledge-tracing era is tracked against a moving estimate of her own trajectory, which is itself a projection from a population's trajectories. The effect is gentler and much more total. There is no longer a form to break; there is only a gradient to descend. To escape the apparatus one must become, somehow, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":553,"children":554},{},[555],{"type":36,"value":556},"unpredictable",{"type":36,"value":558}," to it â and unpredictability, in a large enough system, is simply residual variance. It is noise. It is what the model has not yet learned to absorb.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":560,"children":561},{},[562,564,569],{"type":36,"value":563},"Here is where the question of the child who does not fit becomes sharp. In a classroom full of children, the teacher's attention is a scarce good allocated by many criteria â some pedagogical, some institutional, some frankly social. In a classroom mediated by an adaptive learning platform, the platform's attention is not scarce in the same way; it is allocated by the model's uncertainty. And the model, by design, is most uncertain about the children who deviate from its priors. This is the paradox worth naming. The child who is legible to the model â who follows the expected trajectory, whose errors are the expected errors, whose knowledge state updates as the model anticipates â receives, in a certain sense, the ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":565,"children":566},{},[567],{"type":36,"value":568},"least",{"type":36,"value":570}," human intervention. The pastoral algorithm handles her. The teacher, freed by the platform, attends to the children the platform cannot handle: the ones whose responses surprise it, whose patterns of error do not factor into the known knowledge components, whose silences are of the wrong length, whose attention is distributed in ways the system was not trained to recognise.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":572,"children":573},{},[574,576,581],{"type":36,"value":575},"The irony is considerable. The apparatus, in its effort to individualise education, produces a population in which legibility-to-the-algorithm is inversely correlated with legibility-to-a-human. The children who conform to the statistical assumptions get the algorithmic pedagogue, which is efficient and patient and never tired and never really ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":577,"children":578},{},[579],{"type":36,"value":580},"there",{"type":36,"value":582},". The children who break the statistical assumptions â who ask the question the system did not expect, who fail in an interesting way, who refuse the task, who answer in the wrong register, who take too long, who take no time at all â these are the children who get the human. Not because they are preferred, but because they are the residue the machine cannot process.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":584,"children":585},{},[586,588,593],{"type":36,"value":587},"I do not want to romanticise this. There is nothing liberatory about being the child whose behaviour the algorithm cannot classify. Often it is painful; often it is a diagnosis; often it is a referral, a specialist, a form filled out by a worried parent. But I want to insist that a strange incentive landscape has opened up, which the pedagogical discourse has not yet caught up with. In the twentieth-century school, human connection was a default that had to be rationed. In the twenty-first-century school, human connection is â increasingly, unevenly, across institutions with very different resources â an ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":589,"children":590},{},[591],{"type":36,"value":592},"exception",{"type":36,"value":594},", granted to those whose legibility to the machine has failed. The statistical norm and the zone of human attention have come apart.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":596,"children":597},{},[598],{"type":36,"value":599},"What does this mean for the children who are, in the current diagnostic vocabulary, neurodivergent? I want to be careful here, because this is the kind of question that lends itself to overclaiming in several directions at once. Autism and ADHD and the rest are not strategies; they are not chosen; they are not heroic ruptures with normativity. They are heterogeneous developmental conditions with their own phenomenology, their own difficulties, their own forms of suffering, and their own forms of flourishing. To make them the protagonists of a narrative about the failure of algorithmic pedagogy would be to instrumentalise them for someone else's critique. That is not what I want to do.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":601,"children":602},{},[603,605,610],{"type":36,"value":604},"What I do want to note is more modest, and I think more defensible. The apparatus is, right now, sorting children along an axis that ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":606,"children":607},{},[608],{"type":36,"value":609},"coincides substantially",{"type":36,"value":611},", though not perfectly, with what we currently call neurotypicality. The child who processes the inner loop smoothly, who updates her knowledge state in the shape the HMM expects, who forgets on the Ebbinghaus curve and returns when the owl calls â this child is, statistically, the neurotypical child. The child whose processing does not fit the model is, disproportionately, the neurodivergent child. And so, without anyone having decided this, without any policy anywhere saying this, the apparatus has begun to draw a line, and the line tracks â imperfectly, but legibly â a line that neuroscience and diagnostic practice have been drawing independently, for their own reasons.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":613,"children":614},{},[615,617],{"type":36,"value":616},"Now â and here is where I want to be most careful, because the speculation in your question deserves a more honest answer than biological determinism would give â ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":618,"children":619},{},[620],{"type":36,"value":621},"what happens to a population over time when this line is institutionalised?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":623,"children":624},{},[625],{"type":36,"value":626},"If the question is Darwinian, in the strict sense â does the proportion of autistic alleles in the human gene pool increase because of adaptive learning platforms? â then the answer is no, or at least: n
32ot on any timescale we can reason about. Human generations are twenty-five years; meaningful allele frequency shifts require hundreds of them; the entire history of digital pedagogy is one generation old. Anyone telling you the SAT or Duolingo is changing the human genome is selling something.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":628,"children":629},{},[630],{"type":36,"value":631},"But the question admits a subtler formulation, which I think is the one you are reaching for, and which recent biology has made less speculative than it would have been a decade ago. Development is not a read-out of the genome. It is a dialogue between genome, epigenome, and environment, and the epigenome â the pattern of methylations and histone modifications that regulate which genes are expressed when â is responsive to environmental input, particularly in early childhood, and is, under certain conditions, partially heritable. The literature on this is contested and moves quickly; I don't want to overclaim. But the broad outline is no longer fringe: experiences of stress, of attention, of nutritional environment, of social embedding â these leave epigenetic marks, some of which persist and some of which transmit.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":633,"children":634},{},[635],{"type":36,"value":636},"A child raised within an algorithmic pedagogy that subtly rewards legibility-to-the-model, who receives less human attention when she conforms and more when she does not, who learns â as all children do, with exquisite sensitivity â what kinds of behaviour summon a human face and what kinds summon only the screen, is developing inside an environment whose selection pressures differ from those of any previous educational system. It is not impossible that, over several generations of this, the developmental trajectories we currently group under the heading of neurodivergence become more common. Not because the genes have changed; they will not have. But because the environment in which genes express themselves has changed, and because the phenotypes that were once costly have become, in this new niche, less costly or even â in the narrow sense of attracting human attention â advantageous.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":638,"children":639},{},[640],{"type":36,"value":641},"I offer this with all the hedges it deserves. The mechanism is plausible; the magnitude is unknown; the timescale is generational; the evidence is not yet in. What I am confident of is the smaller claim, which does not need epigenetics to be true: we are currently running, at global scale, an experiment in which human attention to children is being reallocated along an axis of algorithmic legibility, and we have not begun to think about what this does to the children. The rise of neurodivergent diagnosis over the past two decades is over-determined and has many causes â better awareness, broader criteria, genuine increases, diagnostic substitution â but one of the causes we have not yet named, because the apparatus that would be causing it is so new, is the apparatus itself. The apparatus is not neutral with respect to the kinds of minds it makes visible. It makes some minds into signal and other minds into noise. The noise, increasingly, is where the humans are.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":643,"children":644},{},[645],{"type":36,"value":646},"This is not, finally, a prediction. It is an attentiveness. A Foucauldian genealogy does not forecast; it notices what has already happened by the time anyone thought to ask. What has already happened is that the statistical assumptions inside our tutoring models â assumptions about what a skill is, about what learning looks like, about how forgetting works, about how children attend â have become, through millions of small pastoral acts, the implicit shape of childhood. The children who fit this shape recede into the background of their own education, handled. The children who do not fit it come forward into relation with the humans around them, whether they want to or not.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":648,"children":649},{},[650],{"type":36,"value":651},"Somewhere in this, there is a politics we have not yet written.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":653,"children":654},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":656,"children":657},{},[658],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":659,"children":660},{},[661],{"type":36,"value":662},"Bibliographical note. VanLehn's \"The Behavior of Tutoring Systems\" (IJAIED, 2006) is the canonical reference for the inner\u002Fouter loop framing. Corbett and Anderson (1994) introduced Bayesian Knowledge Tracing; Yudelson, Pavlik and Koedinger (2013) document its individualisation limits; Doroudi and Brunskill (2017) discuss identifiability. The Settles and Meeder (2016) Half-Life Regression paper is in the ACL proceedings. Shen and Tamkin, \"How AI Impacts Skill Formation\" (Anthropic, 2026), is the study on delegation patterns. Deonovic et al. (2018) work out the formal relationship between BKT and IRT. On scaffolding, Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976). For the Foucault of all this: Discipline and Punish, the Collège de France lectures on governmentality, and the late essays on the care of the self. On the slide from the statistical to the normative: Canguilhem, Le normal et le pathologique (1966). On modulation versus discipline: Deleuze, \"Postscript on the Societies of Control\" (1990). On transgenerational epigenetics, the literature is genuinely contested; Bohacek and Mansuy (2015, Nature Reviews Genetics) is a reasonable entry point that does not overclaim.",{"type":31,"tag":664,"props":665,"children":666},"ai-disclosure",{},[667],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":668,"children":669},{},[670],{"type":36,"value":671},"This text was co-written with an LLM. I mention it both out of formal transparency, and because the article above raises precisely the question of the relation between the subject and the apparatus that models him â and it seemed dishonest not to signal that the \"I\" of this post is itself a relation, not a sovereign subject.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":674},2,[675,676,677,678,679,680,681],{"id":65,"depth":673,"text":68},{"id":129,"depth":673,"text":132},{"id":205,"depth":673,"text":208},{"id":250,"depth":673,"text":253},{"id":327,"depth":673,"text":330},{"id":389,"depth":673,"text":392},{"id":484,"depth":673,"text":487},"markdown","content:blog:The Docile Learner.md","content","blog\u002FThe Docile Learner.md","blog\u002FThe Docile Learner","md",{"loc":6},{"_path":690,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":691,"description":9,"subtitle":692,"date":693,"authors":694,"tags":695,"section":26,"draft":8,"body":702,"_type":682,"_id":2291,"_source":684,"_file":2292,"_stem":2293,"_extension":687,"sitemap":2294},"\u002Fblog\u002Fprediction-orthogonality-and-schizophrenia","Prediction Orthogonality and the Voices in Your Head","When Mechanistic Interpretability Meets Computational Psychiatry","2026-03-30",[15],[696,697,698,699,700,701],"mechanistic interpretability","computational psychiatry","predictive processing","schizophrenia","superposition","AI safety",{"type":28,"children":703,"toc":2282},[704,710,715,718,726,731,734,740,766,1086,1263,1620,1733,1738,1741,1747,1752,1757,1776,1784,1789,1834,1837,1843,1855,1892,1911,1916,1933,1943,1948,2063,2066,2072,2077,2087,2118,2128,2138,2141,2147,2159,2164,2169,2174,2177,2182,2188,2208,2225,2241,2258,2270],{"type":31,"tag":705,"props":706,"children":708},"h1",{"id":707},"prediction-orthogonality-and-the-voices-in-your-head",[709],{"type":36,"value":691},{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":711,"children":713},{"id":712},"when-mechanistic-interpretability-meets-computational-psychiatry",[714],{"type":36,"value":692},{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":716,"children":717},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":719,"children":720},{},[721],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":722,"children":723},{},[724],{"type":36,"value":725},"What if the same geometric principle that explains why language models can simulate deceptive agents also explains why some brains hear voices?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":727,"children":728},{},[729],{"type":36,"value":730},"This post connects three threads: a hypothesis from mechanistic interpretability about how predictive models host internal agents, a recent genetics paper on schizophrenia, and Scott Alexander's elegant tradeoff-versus-failure framework for psychiatric conditions. The punchline is that prediction orthogonality â a concept from AI safety â might offer a computational-level explanation for psychotic phenomenology, and that the tradeoff\u002Ffailure duality maps cleanly onto the two-factor structure of schizophrenia risk.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":732,"children":733},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":735,"children":737},{"id":736},"the-setup-prediction-orthogonality-in-language-models",[738],{"type":36,"value":739},"The Setup: Prediction Orthogonality in Language Models",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":741,"children":742},{},[743,745,751,753,758,760,764],{"type":36,"value":744},"In their comprehensive review of mechanistic interpretability, Bereska and Gavves (2024) present the ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":747,"children":748},"strong",{},[749],{"type":36,"value":750},"prediction orthogonality hypothesis",{"type":36,"value":752},": a model trained on prediction can simulate agents pursuing ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":754,"children":755},{},[756],{"type":36,"value":757},"any",{"type":36,"value":759}," objectives with ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":761,"children":762},{},[763],{"type":36,"value":757},{"type":36,"value":765}," degree of optimality. The simulator and its simulacra are decoupled â the model's training loss lives in one subspace, while the simulated agents' goals occupy orthogonal subspaces.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":767,"children":768},{},[769,771,931,933,976,978,1084],{"type":36,"value":770},"The linear-algebraic picture is clean. 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Alexander discusses new genetics research showing that schizophrenia risk decomposes into two components:",{"type":31,"tag":1856,"props":1857,"children":1858},"ol",{},[1859,1876],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":1860,"children":1861},{},[1862,1867,1869,1874],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":1863,"children":1864},{},[1865],{"type":36,"value":1866},"A component shared with bipolar disorder",{"type":36,"value":1868},", associated with ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":1870,"children":1871},{},[1872],{"type":36,"value":1873},"higher",{"type":36,"value":1875}," educational attainment â likely linked to creativity, motivation, or cognitive flexibility.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":1877,"children":1878},{},[1879,1884,1885,1890],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":1880,"children":1881},{},[1882],{"type":36,"value":1883},"A component not shared with bipolar",{"type":36,"value":1868},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":1886,"children":1887},{},[1888],{"type":36,"value":1889},"lower",{"type":36,"value":1891}," IQ â likely reflecting deleterious mutations in neurodevelopmental genes.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":1893,"children":1894},{},[1895,1897,1902,1904,1909],{"type":36,"value":1896},"Alexander frames this through his earlier tradeoff-versus-failure model of psychiatric conditions. The first component is a ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":1898,"children":1899},{},[1900],{"type":36,"value":1901},"tradeoff",{"type":36,"value":1903},": you get more of something valuable (creativity, divergent thinking) at the cost of increased psychosis risk. The second is a ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":1905,"children":1906},{},[1907],{"type":36,"value":1908},"failure",{"type":36,"value":1910},": something simply goes wrong, with no compensating advantage.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":1912,"children":1913},{},[1914],{"type":36,"value":1915},"Now map this onto prediction orthogonality:",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":1917,"children":1918},{},[1919,1924,1926,1931],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":1920,"children":1921},{},[1922],{"type":36,"value":1923},"The tradeoff component",{"type":36,"value":1925}," corresponds to a system that is ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":1927,"children":1928},{},[1929],{"type":36,"value":1930},"more richly multi-agent internally",{"type":36,"value":1932}," â more simulacra, more loosely bound, more degrees of freedom in the latent space. This is what gives humans their extraordinary cognitive flexibility: the ability to model other minds, to hold multiple hypotheses simultaneously, to re
32combine ideas creatively. A brain with more active orthogonal subspaces is a more creative brain â but it's also closer to the threshold where simulacra start competing for dominance. This is the first genetic factor: higher education, higher creativity, higher psychosis risk.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":1934,"children":1935},{},[1936,1941],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":1937,"children":1938},{},[1939],{"type":36,"value":1940},"The failure component",{"type":36,"value":1942}," corresponds to degraded binding or gating mechanisms â the neural circuitry that normally prevents cross-talk between orthogonal subspaces. When this breaks, the approximately-orthogonal representation collapses: features that should be independent start interfering, internal agents that should be suppressed start broadcasting. This is the second genetic factor: worse neurodevelopment, lower IQ, no compensating benefit.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":1944,"children":1945},{},[1946],{"type":36,"value":1947},"The two-factor model of schizophrenia thus maps onto a two-factor model of prediction orthogonality:",{"type":31,"tag":1949,"props":1950,"children":1951},"table",{},[1952,1974],{"type":31,"tag":1953,"props":1954,"children":1955},"thead",{},[1956],{"type":31,"tag":1957,"props":1958,"children":1959},"tr",{},[1960,1964,1969],{"type":31,"tag":1961,"props":1962,"children":1963},"th",{},[],{"type":31,"tag":1961,"props":1965,"children":1966},{},[1967],{"type":36,"value":1968},"Tradeoff (Factor 1)",{"type":31,"tag":1961,"props":1970,"children":1971},{},[1972],{"type":36,"value":1973},"Failure (Factor 2)",{"type":31,"tag":1975,"props":1976,"children":1977},"tbody",{},[1978,2000,2021,2042],{"type":31,"tag":1957,"props":1979,"children":1980},{},[1981,1990,1995],{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":1983,"children":1984},"td",{},[1985],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":1986,"children":1987},{},[1988],{"type":36,"value":1989},"What it does",{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":1991,"children":1992},{},[1993],{"type":36,"value":1994},"Increases dimensionality of internal agent-space",{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":1996,"children":1997},{},[1998],{"type":36,"value":1999},"Degrades the coherence\u002Fgating mechanism",{"type":31,"tag":1957,"props":2001,"children":2002},{},[2003,2011,2016],{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2004,"children":2005},{},[2006],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2007,"children":2008},{},[2009],{"type":36,"value":2010},"Genetic correlate",{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2012,"children":2013},{},[2014],{"type":36,"value":2015},"Shared with bipolar; â education",{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2017,"children":2018},{},[2019],{"type":36,"value":2020},"Not shared; â IQ",{"type":31,"tag":1957,"props":2022,"children":2023},{},[2024,2032,2037],{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2025,"children":2026},{},[2027],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2028,"children":2029},{},[2030],{"type":36,"value":2031},"Benefit",{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2033,"children":2034},{},[2035],{"type":36,"value":2036},"Creativity, cognitive flexibility, theory of mind",{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2038,"children":2039},{},[2040],{"type":36,"value":2041},"None",{"type":31,"tag":1957,"props":2043,"children":2044},{},[2045,2053,2058],{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2046,"children":2047},{},[2048],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2049,"children":2050},{},[2051],{"type":36,"value":2052},"Risk",{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2054,"children":2055},{},[2056],{"type":36,"value":2057},"More simulacra â closer to interference threshold",{"type":31,"tag":1982,"props":2059,"children":2060},{},[2061],{"type":36,"value":2062},"Cross-talk between subspaces â psychotic symptoms",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2064,"children":2065},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2067,"children":2069},{"id":2068},"caveats-and-tensions",[2070],{"type":36,"value":2071},"Caveats and Tensions",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2073,"children":2074},{},[2075],{"type":36,"value":2076},"This analogy is productive, but it is an analogy. Several tensions are worth flagging.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2078,"children":2079},{},[2080,2085],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2081,"children":2082},{},[2083],{"type":36,"value":2084},"Linearity.",{"type":36,"value":2086}," The subspace picture relies on the linear representation hypothesis holding at least approximately. In transformers, there is substantial empirical evidence for this (word embedding arithmetic, successful linear probing, sparse dictionary learning). In the brain, the neural code may not be linear enough for the subspace picture to hold cleanly. Though it's worth noting that linear decoding from neural populations is remarkably effective across neuroscience â it's the workhorse of BCI research.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2088,"children":2089},{},[2090,2095,2097,2102,2104,2109,2111,2116],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2091,"children":2092},{},[2093],{"type":36,"value":2094},"Phenomenology.",{"type":36,"value":2096}," In the LLM case, there is no \"what it's like\" to host multiple simulacra. In schizophrenia, the subjective dimension â ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2098,"children":2099},{}
32,[2100],{"type":36,"value":2101},"hearing voices",{"type":36,"value":2103},", ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2105,"children":2106},{},[2107],{"type":36,"value":2108},"feeling controlled",{"type":36,"value":2110}," â is precisely what makes it pathological. The computational analogy explains the ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2112,"children":2113},{},[2114],{"type":36,"value":2115},"structure",{"type":36,"value":2117}," of the failure but not why certain subspace leakages are experienced as alien rather than as ordinary competing thoughts (which everyone has). Something about source-monitoring or metacognitive tagging must be doing additional work.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2119,"children":2120},{},[2121,2126],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2122,"children":2123},{},[2124],{"type":36,"value":2125},"Pharmacology.",{"type":36,"value":2127}," This framing is closer to predictive processing accounts of schizophrenia (Corlett, Frith, Fletcher) than to classical dopamine models. Antipsychotics work primarily by blocking D2 receptors. Any computational account needs to explain why modulating dopamine fixes (or at least suppresses) the cross-talk. One possibility: dopamine modulates the precision-weighting of predictions, and D2 blockade effectively turns down the gain on aberrant internal predictions â suppressing the rogue simulacra without eliminating them.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2129,"children":2130},{},[2131,2136],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2132,"children":2133},{},[2134],{"type":36,"value":2135},"Empirical grounding.",{"type":36,"value":2137}," The strongest version of this claim would require showing that, in neuroimaging data, schizophrenia is associated with measurable changes in the geometry of neural representations â less orthogonality between functional subspaces, more interference, more superposition. This is, in principle, testable with the right combination of fMRI functional connectivity analysis and representational geometry methods.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2139,"children":2140},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2142,"children":2144},{"id":2143},"why-this-matters",[2145],{"type":36,"value":2146},"Why This Matters",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2148,"children":2149},{},[2150,2152,2157],{"type":36,"value":2151},"The connection between prediction orthogonality and psychosis is not just a metaphor. It suggests a specific computational-level hypothesis: ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2153,"children":2154},{},[2155],{"type":36,"value":2156},"schizophrenia involves a breakdown in the approximate orthogonality of internal predictive subspaces",{"type":36,"value":2158},", and this breakdown has two independent causes (richer agent-space and degraded binding) that map onto the two genetic components identified in recent research.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2160,"children":2161},{},[2162],{"type":36,"value":2163},"For AI safety, it's a reminder that prediction orthogonality isn't just a theoretical curiosity about language models. It describes a general property of high-dimensional predictive systems â biological or artificial â and the failure modes it predicts (competing agents, misattributed computations, loss of coherence) have real analogs in the most studied predictive system we know: the human brain.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2165,"children":2166},{},[2167],{"type":36,"value":2168},"For computational psychiatry, it offers a bridge between the mathematical toolkit of mechanistic interpretability (superposition, linear representations, feature disentanglement, sparse autoencoders) and the phenomenology of psychosis. If the same geometric principles govern how transformers and brains represent multiple agents, then tools developed for one might illuminate the other.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2170,"children":2171},{},[2172],{"type":36,"value":2173},"And for anyone who has ever wondered what it would feel like to be a language model hosting multiple simulacra at once â well, unfortunately, some people already know.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2175,"children":2176},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2178,"children":2179},{}
32,[2180],{"type":36,"value":2181},"As Foucault was saying : the mad subject, after all, was never the one who lacked reason â but the one in whom too many reasons competed for the status of truth. Source : Michel Foucault, Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique (Madness and Civilization), originally published in 1961 under the full title Folie et Déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2183,"children":2185},{"id":2184},"references",[2186],{"type":36,"value":2187},"References",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2189,"children":2190},{},[2191,2193,2198,2200],{"type":36,"value":2192},"Bereska, L., & Gavves, E. (2024). Mechanistic Interpretability for AI Safety â A Review. ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2194,"children":2195},{},[2196],{"type":36,"value":2197},"arXiv preprint arXiv:2404.14082",{"type":36,"value":2199},". ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":2202,"children":2206},"a",{"href":2203,"rel":2204},"https:\u002F\u002Farxiv.org\u002Fabs\u002F2404.14082",[2205],"nofollow",[2207],{"type":36,"value":2203},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2209,"children":2210},{},[2211,2213,2218,2219],{"type":36,"value":2212},"Alexander, S. (2026). How Natural Tradeoff and Failure Components? ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2214,"children":2215},{},[2216],{"type":36,"value":2217},"Astral Codex Ten",{"type":36,"value":2199},{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":2220,"children":2223},{"href":2221,"rel":2222},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.astralcodexten.com\u002Fp\u002Fhow-natural-tradeoff-and-failure",[2205],[2224],{"type":36,"value":2221},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2226,"children":2227},{},[2228,2230,2234,2235],{"type":36,"value":2229},"Alexander, S. (2021). Ontology of Psychiatric Conditions. ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2231,"children":2232},{},[2233],{"type":36,"value":2217},{"type":36,"value":2199},{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":2236,"children":2239},{"href":2237,"rel":2238},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.astralcodexten.com\u002Fp\u002Fontology-of-psychiatric-conditions-653",[2205],[2240],{"type":36,"value":2237},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2242,"children":2243},{},[2244,2246,2251,2252],{"type":36,"value":2245},"janus. (2022). Simulators. ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2247,"children":2248},{},[2249],{"type":36,"value":2250},"LessWrong",{"type":36,"value":2199},{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":2253,"children":2256},{"href":2254,"rel":2255},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.lesswrong.com\u002Fposts\u002FvJFdjigzmcXMhNTsx\u002Fsimulators",[2205],[2257],{"type":36,"value":2254},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2259,"children":2260},{},[2261,2263,2268],{"type":36,"value":2262},"Friston, K. (2010). The free-energy principle: a unified brain theory? ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2264,"children":2265},{},[2266],{"type":36,"value":2267},"Nature Reviews Neuroscience",{"type":36,"value":2269},", 11(2), 127â138.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2271,"children":2272},{},[2273,2275,2280],{"type":36,"value":2274},"Corlett, P. R., Horga, G., Fletcher, P. C., Alderson-Day, B., Schmack, K., & Powers, A. R. (2019). Hallucinations and strong priors. ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2276,"children":2277},{},[2278],{"type":36,"value":2279},"Trends in Cognitive Sciences",{"type":36,"value":2281},", 23(2), 114â127.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":2283},[2284,2285,2286,2287,2288,2289,2290],{"id":712,"depth":673,"text":692},{"id":736,"depth":673,"text":739},{"id":1743,"depth":673,"text":1746},{"id":1839,"depth":673,"text":1842},{"id":2068,"depth":673,"text":2071},{"id":2143,"depth":673,"text":2146},{"id":2184,"depth":673,"text":2187},"content:blog:Prediction orthogonality and schizophrenia.md","blog\u002FPrediction orthogonality and schizophrenia.md","blog\u002FPrediction orthogonality and schizophrenia",{"loc":690},{"_path":2296,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":2297,"description":2298,"date":2299,"authors":15,"tags":2300,"section":2307,"draft":8,"body":2308,"_type":682,"_id":2724,"_source":684,"_file":2725,"_stem":2726,"_extension":687,"sitemap":2727},"\u002Fblog\u002Famboise","Le rôle du fleuve dans l'organisation de l'espace : carte d'Amboise","Bienvenue en Touraine, pays de Balzac, de Léonard de Vinci, des châteaux de la Loire, du saint-nicolas-de-bourgueil, du chinon et du vouvray.","2026-02-19",[2301,2302,2303,2304,2305,2306],"géographie","Loire","Amboise","territoire","tourisme","urbanisme","Spirituality and other fun stuff",{"type":28,"children":2309,"toc":2707},[2310,2317,2331,2336,2341,2346,2349,2355,2360,2378,2381,2387,2395,2402,2407,2413,2418,2423,2428,2433,2439,2444,2449,2454,2462,2465,2471,2476,2482,2487,2492,2497,2503,2508,2513,2516,2522,2527,2532,2537,2542,2547,2559,2564,2567,2573,2656,2659,2665,2670,2673,2679],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2311,"children":2312},{},[2313],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2314,"children":2315},{},[2316],{"type":36,"value":2298},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2318,"children":2319},{},[2320],{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":2321,"children":2324},{"href":2322,"rel":2323},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.monbeauvillage.fr\u002F37\u002F37400\u002Famboise\u002Fcarte-ign",[2205],[2325],{"type":31,"tag":2326,"props":2327,"children":2330},"img",{"alt":2328,"src":2329},"Carte IGN d'Amboise","\u002Fimages\u002FAmboise.png",[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2332,"children":2333},{},[2334],{"type":36,"value":2335},"Bienvenue dans la \"Loire Valley\" comme le vendent les autorités locales depuis la généralisation du marketing territorial dans nos collectivités territoriales françaises. Cette carte IGN au 1\u002F25 000 nous présente un territoire majoritairement rural de la province française dans le département de l'Indre-et-Loire au sein de la région Centre-Val de Loire au sud de la région capitale.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2337,"children":2338},{},[2339],{"type":36,"value":2340},"Ce qui est remarquable sur cette carte c'est d'abord l'axe ligérien. La Loire vient structurer l'ensemble de l'espace territorial dans un corridor est-ouest. Les voies de communication, les cultures, les activités de productions et de services et l'urbain semblent suivre des parallèles. à plus petite échelle, c'est-à -dire à l'échelle nationale, la Loire passe par Orléans au nord-est et finit sa course dans l'océan Atlantique en passant par Nantes à l'ouest. Elle relie donc Amboise et sa grande sÅur, Tours, aux métropoles voisines et a ainsi inscrit la Touraine au centre d'un vaste système économique allant d'Orléans à Saint-Nazaire. Ces échanges de biens, de services et de populations ont permis dès l'Antiquité le développement d'Amboise.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2342,"children":2343},{},[2344],{"type":36,"value":2345},"Amboise est donc une ville historique marquée par l'histoire de France. La ville accueille le célèbre château d'Amboise construit et habité par François IáµÊ³. Elle est donc sur la route des châteaux de la Loire ce qui en fait un des hauts lieux touristiques de la région Centre. Elle bénéficie ainsi d'une mise en tourisme fondée sur la culture dans tout ce qu'elle comprend d'historique, d'architectural et de gastronomique. Les cinq piliers â paysage, histoire, architecture, vins de la Loire et gastronomie régionale â permettent donc à Amboise de rayonner à l'internationale, faisant du fleuve un véritable label touristique depuis que la vallée a été promue à l'UNESCO.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2347,"children":2348},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2350,"children":2352},{"id":2351},"problématique",[2353],{"type":36,"value":2354},"Problématique",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2356,"children":2357},{},[2358],{"type":36,"value":2359},"Dans ce territoire au développement moyen mais remarquable, de la France provinciale mais intégrée â territoire gagnant de la mondialisation ? â quel est le rôle du fleuve dans le développement du territoire d'Amboise et dans son intégration à l'échelle nationale, régionale, internationale ?",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":2361,"children":2362},{},[2363,2368,2373],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2364,"children":2365},{},[2366],{"type":36,"value":2367},"Le fleuve comme axe structurant dans les échanges historiques (vins â vinaigre à Orléans).",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2369,"children":2370},{},[2371],{"type":36,"value":2372},"Le fleuve structure les axes de communications.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2374,"children":2375},{},[2376],{"type":36,"value":2377},"Influence en creux.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2379,"children":2380},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2382,"children":2384},{"id":2383},"i-le-rôle-du-fleuve-dans-la-structure-du-territoire-morphologie",[2385],{"type":36,"value":2386},"I\u002F Le rôle du fleuve dans la structure du territoire â Morphologie",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2388,"children":2389},{},[2390],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2391,"children":2392},{},[2393],{"type":36,"value":2394},"Territoire-ressource. La valorisation économique du territoire tient à l'aménité-fleuve.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2397,"children":2399},"h3",{"id":2398},"a-emplacement",[2400],{"type":36,"value":2401},"A\u002F Emplacement",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2403,"children":2404},{},[2405],{"type":36,"value":2406},"Entre Orléans et Nantes. Direction Paris. Développement économique. Ãchange de vin. Réseau hydrographique dense qui a permis, avec les affluents, d'être au centre d'un vaste système économique et social (échange de biens, de services mais aussi de populations et de pratiques). La Loire vient en quelque sorte drainer les cours d'eau présents sur tout le territoire (le Cher, la Brenne) â vaste réseau de communication.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2408,"children":2410},{"id":2409},"b-richesse-du-territoire",[2411],{"type":36,"value":2412},"B\u002F Richesse du territoire",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2414,"children":2415},{},[2416],{"type":36,"value":2417}
32,"Plaine alluviale très fertile grâce aux dépôts des alluvions. La Loire est une ressource biologique et minérale pour le territoire. Aujourd'hui appelée le dernier fleuve encore à peu près sauvage. Cours non canalisé et un fleuve anastomosé. Ex : l'île d'Or.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2419,"children":2420},{},[2421],{"type":36,"value":2422},"Agriculture et élevage. Vergers. Villages-tas. Bois giboyeux, fleuve poissonneux. On a ici une sorte d'opulence de la nature qui fait que la région est surnommée le « jardin de la France » du fait de sa fertilité.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2424,"children":2425},{},[2426],{"type":36,"value":2427},"Mise en culture, maraîchage ; près de la Beauce donc beaucoup de céréales au nord. Plus dans les terres on n'a pas les mêmes types de production agricole : en effet on est sur un plateau avec quelques irrégularités qui permettent de drainer l'eau et de faire du vin de qualité. Beaucoup de vins sur les coteaux : Vouvray, Chinonâ¦",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2429,"children":2430},{},[2431],{"type":36,"value":2432},"Aujourd'hui : bois d'Amboise, ancien bois royal.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2434,"children":2436},{"id":2435},"c-la-ville-damboise",[2437],{"type":36,"value":2438},"C\u002F La ville d'Amboise",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2440,"children":2441},{},[2442],{"type":36,"value":2443},"Témoin de l'évolution historique. Traces antiques (le site des Châteliers sur lequel est bâti le château royal d'Amboise). Vieux centre médiéval. La Renaissance joue un rôle plus important â voir carte.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2445,"children":2446},{},[2447],{"type":36,"value":2448},"Pas de ville-pont avant le XXáµ siècle et le développement industriel de la ville, du fait des fortes crues de la Loire qui régulièrement détruisaient les ponts. Grandes digues sur les bords de Loire.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2450,"children":2451},{},[2452],{"type":36,"value":2453},"Enfin il y a des quartiers résidentiels, témoignage du développement des années 60-80. Mitage urbain et expansion de la ville sur les cultures. Pas de grandes structures : ce qui a pu être un développement médiocre dans le passé se traduit par une chance aujourd'hui car il semble qu'il n'y ait pas de quartier construit rapidement, mal intégré au sein de l'ensemble du territoire.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2455,"children":2456},{},[2457],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2458,"children":2459},{},[2460],{"type":36,"value":2461},"Attractivité et répulsivité : entre aménité et risque, la Loire polarise l'urbanisation.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2463,"children":2464},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2466,"children":2468},{"id":2467},"ii-les-activités-économiques-et-les-dynamiques-dune-population-qui-a-su-mettre-en-réseau-son-territoire-autour-de-laxe-ligérien",[2469],{"type":36,"value":2470},"II\u002F Les activités économiques et les dynamiques d'une population qui a su mettre en réseau son territoire autour de l'axe ligérien",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2472,"children":2473},{},[2474],{"type":36,"value":2475},"Pas de spécialisation économique. Ce pouvait être un frein au développement pendant la révolution industrielle, car la ville n'a jamais vraiment été un pôle efficient dans un seul secteur économique. Mais aujourd'hui dans la mise en concurrence des territoires, la diversité économique de la ville en fait sa force et lui permet d'avoir une grande capacité de résilience et d'adaptabilité dans le développement économique. Pas non plus de dépendance économique â quoique, peut-être avec le tourisme.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2477,"children":2479},{"id":2478},"a-les-activités-économiques",[2480],{"type":36,"value":2481},"A\u002F Les activités économiques",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2483,"children":2484},{},[2485],{"type":36,"value":2486},"Le vin, le vinaigre à Orléans, les gabares â le glissement des voies de communication.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2488,"children":2489},{},[2490],{"type":36,"value":2491},"Zones d'activité. Deuxième pôle d'activité du département. Assez loin de Tours pour ne pas souffrir de la concurrence entre les territoires, mais assez près pour pouvoir élaborer une synergie. Acce
32ssibilité avec l'autoroute A10.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2493,"children":2494},{},[2495],{"type":36,"value":2496},"Mecachrome (fabrication de pièces pour Airbus). Vallée de la chimie. Parfum, esthétique autour de Tours.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2498,"children":2500},{"id":2499},"b-lhistoire-et-la-culture",[2501],{"type":36,"value":2502},"B\u002F L'histoire et la culture",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2504,"children":2505},{},[2506],{"type":36,"value":2507},"François IáµÊ³. Le château d'Amboise surplombe la Loire. Aujourd'hui réutilisé pour le tourisme. Culture et tradition. Labellisation de la Loire.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2509,"children":2510},{},[2511],{"type":36,"value":2512},"Fort terroir â gastronomie, musées (Clos Lucé). Mise en tourisme de toute la ville. Le vieux Amboise.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2514,"children":2515},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2517,"children":2519},{"id":2518},"iii-limites-et-enjeux-de-durabilité-économique-et-sociale-dun-espace-moyen",[2520],{"type":36,"value":2521},"III\u002F Limites et enjeux de durabilité économique et sociale d'un espace moyen",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2523,"children":2524},{},[2525],{"type":36,"value":2526},"Protection de la Loire qui est devenue un véritable label culturel. Il s'agit donc de protéger et de préserver la richesse de la biodiversité â capital paysager.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2528,"children":2529},{},[2530],{"type":36,"value":2531},"1994 : Michel Barnier, ministre de l'Environnement du gouvernement d'Ãdouard Balladur, annonce le « plan Loire grandeur nature », un plan global d'aménagement de la Loire visant à concilier la sécurité des personnes, la protection de l'environnement et le développement économique. Gabarre ou ramberte.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2533,"children":2534},{},[2535],{"type":36,"value":2536},"Préservation des oiseaux (îles, APO â association de préservation des oiseaux) : interdiction d'aller sur les îles, notamment pour les canoës.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2538,"children":2539},{},[2540],{"type":36,"value":2541},"AOP pour les vins et les fromages. Protection culturelle. Cahier des charges à respecter. Nouvelle AOP Amboise (vigne autour du château d'Amboise) apparue en 2017. Ce qui montre que les politiques volontaristes du territoire sont en phase avec les outils de bonne intégration et de bonne protection afin d'être compétitif par rapport à d'autres territoires.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2543,"children":2544},{},[2545],{"type":36,"value":2546},"Entreprises et industries classées SEVESO II liées à la chimie.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2548,"children":2549},{},[2550,2552,2557],{"type":36,"value":2551},"Développement du tourisme qualitatif : mise sur le ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2553,"children":2554},{},[2555],{"type":36,"value":2556},"happy few",{"type":36,"value":2558}," autour des notions touristiques comme le cadre de vie, la qualité gastronomique, la proximité avec la nature.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2560,"children":2561},{},[2562],{"type":36,"value":2563},"Relais plutôt qu'un carrefour. L'arrière-cour parisienne.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2565,"children":2566},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2568,"children":2570},{"id":2569},"éléments-complémentaires",[2571],{"type":36,"value":2572},"Ãléments complémentaires",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":2574,"children":2575},{},[2576,2586,2596,2606,2616,2626,2636,2646],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2577,"children":2578},{},[2579,2584],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2580,"children":2581},{},[2582],{"type":36,"value":2583},"Terrasses, varennes",{"type":36,"value":2585}," â digues en milieu ligérien (des levées ; la route est posée dessus).",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2587,"children":2588},{},[2589,2594],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2590,"children":2591},{},[2592],{"type":36,"value":2593},"Sanctuarisation choisie.",{"type":36,"value":2595}," Validation du label, du terroir. Marketing territorial qui l'insère dans une mondialisation du tourisme.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2597,"children":2598},{},[2599,2604],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2600,"children":2601},{},[2602],{"type":36,"value":2603},"Identité ligérienne.",{"type":36,"value":2605}," Coincée entre les deux métropoles régionales. Entre deux : côté ancien et moderne.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2607,"children":2608},{},[2609,2614],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2610,"children":2611},{},[2612],{"type":36,"value":2613},"L'EPALA",{"type":36,"value":2615}," (affluents). Gouvernance, gestion publique.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2617,"children":2618},{},[2619,2624],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2620,"children":2621},{},[2622],{"type":36,"value":2623},"Gradient.",{"type":36,"value":2625}," La Loire a un rôle central. Modèle centre-périphérie autour d'un axe. à mesure qu'on
32s'éloigne de la Loire : gradient, inégalité, métrique. Centralité, corridor, héritage.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2627,"children":2628},{},[2629,2634],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2630,"children":2631},{},[2632],{"type":36,"value":2633},"Risque d'inondation.",{"type":36,"value":2635}," Variation du cours de la Loire.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2637,"children":2638},{},[2639,2644],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2640,"children":2641},{},[2642],{"type":36,"value":2643},"Politique de la déconcentration.",{"type":36,"value":2645}," Vallée de la chimie. Cosmetic Valley.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2647,"children":2648},{},[2649,2654],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2650,"children":2651},{},[2652],{"type":36,"value":2653},"Différentes strates",{"type":36,"value":2655}," : ce rôle central se nourrit de sa capacité à interagir à différentes échelles â volontarisme central de Paris, mondialisation.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2657,"children":2658},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2660,"children":2662},{"id":2661},"conclusion",[2663],{"type":36,"value":2664},"Conclusion",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2666,"children":2667},{},[2668],{"type":36,"value":2669},"Ce territoire fortement intégré au sein du territoire national a su mettre en valeur les ressources à la fois productives et culturelles de son territoire. Le réseau viaire et l'intégration de l'espace sont forts. L'espace se structure autour de l'axe ligérien et a intelligemment spécialisé son espace en différentes sphères qu'elles soient productives (culture et industries), de service (centre-ville gentrifié, musées et services de tourisme) ou de logements. Il peut y avoir alors une certaine dépendance du territoire à l'économie présentielle mais finalement, dans l'ensemble, l'économie est plutôt équilibrée. Amboise fait définitivement partie des territoires gagnants de la mondialisation mais doit préserver les ressources qui font sa richesse.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":2671,"children":2672},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2674,"children":2676},{"id":2675},"idées-et-notes",[2677],{"type":36,"value":2678},"Idées et notes",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":2680,"children":2681},{},[2682,2687,2692,2697,2702],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2683,"children":2684},{},[2685],{"type":36,"value":2686},"La vallée de la chimie (fabrique de Viagra dans la commanderie sur la rive droite de la Loire à Amboise).",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2688,"children":2689},{},[2690],{"type":36,"value":2691},"Cépage rouge : gamay, pinot noir, cabernet, côt. Cépage blanc : chenin â Montlouis, Vouvray.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2693,"children":2694},{},[2695],{"type":36,"value":2696},"Touraine â région surnommée le « jardin de la France » du fait de sa fertilité.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2698,"children":2699},{},[2700],{"type":36,"value":2701},"Elle tire son nom des Turones, les premiers habitants.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":2703,"children":2704},{},[2705],{"type":36,"value":2706},"Caractérisée par une roche calcaire, des grottes troglodytes et le tuffeau (couleur jaune).",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":2708},[2709,2710,2716,2720,2721,2722,2723],{"id":2351,"depth":673,"text":2354},{"id":2383,"depth":673,"text":2386,"children":2711},[2712,2714,2715],{"id":2398,"depth":2713,"text":2401},3,{"id":2409,"depth":2713,"text":2412},{"id":2435,"depth":2713,"text":2438},{"id":2467,"depth":673,"text":2470,"children":2717},[2718,2719],{"id":2478,"depth":2713,"text":2481},{"id":2499,"depth":2713,"text":2502},{"id":2518,"depth":673,"text":2521},{"id":2569,"depth":673,"text":2572},{"id":2661,"depth":673,"text":2664},{"id":2675,"depth":673,"text":2678},"content:blog:Amboise.md","blog\u002FAmboise.md","blog\u002FAmboise",{"loc":2296},{"_path":2729,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":2730,"description":2731,"date":2732,"authors":15,"tags":2733,"section":26,"draft":8,"body":2736,"_type":682,"_id":2822,"_source":684,"_file":2823,"_stem":2824,"_extension":687,"sitemap":2825},"\u002Fblog\u002Fon-the-economy-of-scientific-research","On the Economy of Scientific Re
32search: Optimizing Research Efficiency through Analysis of Citation Graph Dynamics","How can we strategically allocate limited research resources to maximize scientific progress? Can citation network analysis reveal the structural gaps that, when filled, accelerate knowledge creation and collaboration across disciplines?",2025,[2734,2735],"Citation graph","research efficiency",{"type":28,"children":2737,"toc":2814},[2738,2745,2751,2756,2761,2767,2772,2778,2783,2789,2794,2800,2805,2809],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2739,"children":2740},{},[2741],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2742,"children":2743},{},[2744],{"type":36,"value":2731},{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2746,"children":2748},{"id":2747},"abstract",[2749],{"type":36,"value":2750},"Abstract",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2752,"children":2753},{},[2754],{"type":36,"value":2755},"THIS IS JUST A DRAFT IDEA SO FAR",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2757,"children":2758},{},[2759],{"type":36,"value":2760},"Scientific research plays a crucial role in advancing knowledge and driving innovation. However, the allocation of limited resources, including funding and human capital, poses significant challenges for researchers, funding agencies, and policymakers. This paper proposes a novel approach to optimize research efforts by analyzing the dynamics of citation graphs, specifically focusing on the relationship between prior works and derivative works. We argue that maximizing the utility of a scientific field can be achieved by identifying articles that fill significant gaps within citation networks. We propose utilizing the concept of betweenness centrality to determine the structural investments required to enhance the field's growth.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2762,"children":2764},{"id":2763},"introduction",[2765],{"type":36,"value":2766},"Introduction",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2768,"children":2769},{},[2770],{"type":36,"value":2771},"Scientific research is a complex and multifaceted endeavor that requires substantial investments of resources. Maximizing the impact of these resources is of paramount importance to both researchers and society at large. This paper aims to explore how the dynamics of citation graphs can inform decision-making processes in research funding and resource allocation. By identifying articles that would significantly enhance the connectivity and knowledge flow within a scientific field, we can optimize research efforts and promote scientific progress.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2773,"children":2775},{"id":2774},"methods",[2776],{"type":36,"value":2777},"Methods",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2779,"children":2780},{},[2781],{"type":36,"value":2782},"The proposed methodology involves analyzing citation graphs and assessing the potential impact of new research articles on the overall structure of the network. We argue that the degree to which a new article bridges gaps within the citation graph, resulting in increased connectivity and knowledge transfer, can be quantified using the concept of betweenness centrality. By determining the articles with high betweenness centrality, we can identify key research works that have the potential to maximize the utility of the field.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2784,"children":2786},{"id":2785},"results-and-discussion",[2787],{"type":36,"value":2788},"Results and Discussion",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2790,"children":2791},{},[2792],{"type":36,"value":2793},"Applying the proposed methodology to various scientific fields, we anticipate obtaining insights into the structural investments required to enhance research efficiency. By prioritizing research articles with high betweenness centrality, funding agencies and policymakers can allocate resources to areas that are most likely to drive substantial advancements in knowledge. This approach ensures that resources are allocated strategically, targeting critical gaps in the citation network and fostering collaboration and information dissemination among researchers.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2795,"children":2797},{"id":2796},"implications-and-future-directions",[2798],{"type":36,"value":2799},"Implications and Future Directions",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2801,"children":2802},{},[2803],{"type":36,"value":2804},"The optimization of research efforts through an understanding of citation graph dynamics has broad implications for the scientific community, funding agencies, and policymakers. This approach offers a data-driven strategy to enhance the efficiency of research investments. Additionally, this methodology can be used to identify emerging research areas, predict trends, and guide decision-making processes in the allocation of research resources. Future research should focus on refining the proposed methodology, validating its effectiveness across diverse scientific disciplines, and exploring its potential integration into existing research evaluation systems.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2806,"children":2807},{"id":2661},[2808],{"type":36,"value":2664},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2810,"children":2811},{},[2812],{"type":36,"value":2813},"This paper presents a novel approach to optimize scientific research by anal
32yzing the dynamics of citation graphs. By identifying research articles that bridge significant gaps within the network, we can maximize the utility of a scientific field. The concept of betweenness centrality provides a quantifiable measure to determine the structural investments required to enhance research efficiency. Applying this methodology has the potential to revolutionize research resource allocation, leading to increased collaboration, knowledge dissemination, and scientific advancements across various disciplines.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":2815},[2816,2817,2818,2819,2820,2821],{"id":2747,"depth":673,"text":2750},{"id":2763,"depth":673,"text":2766},{"id":2774,"depth":673,"text":2777},{"id":2785,"depth":673,"text":2788},{"id":2796,"depth":673,"text":2799},{"id":2661,"depth":673,"text":2664},"content:blog:On-the-Economy-of-Scientific-Research.md","blog\u002FOn-the-Economy-of-Scientific-Research.md","blog\u002FOn-the-Economy-of-Scientific-Research",{"loc":2729},{"_path":2827,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":2828,"description":2829,"authors":2830,"date":2832,"tags":2833,"section":26,"draft":8,"body":2843,"_type":682,"_id":3237,"_source":684,"_file":3238,"_stem":3239,"_extension":687,"sitemap":3240},"\u002Fblog\u002Fanthropomorphism-and-consent-in-the-age-of-ai","Anthropomorphism and Consent in the age of AI","Can machines truly reciprocate human emotional bonds, or does anthropomorphism merely project meaning onto algorithmic responses? As AI becomes increasingly humanlike, how do we navigate consent, attachment, and the ethics of designing companions without consciousness?",[2831,15],"Abishek Thamma","2023-02-05",[2834,2835,2836,2837,2838,2839,2840,2841,2842],"Anthropomorphism","Sexual Consent","Human-Robot Interaction","Deepfakes","Social Robots","Therapeutic Robots","Sex Robots","Moral Agency","Personhood",{"type":28,"children":2844,"toc":3223},[2845,2852,2858,2863,2868,2874,2879,2884,2889,2895,2900,2905,2911,2916,2921,2926,2932,2937,2943,2948,2958,2968,2974,2979,2984,2990,2995,3000,3005,3011,3016,3020],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2846,"children":2847},{},[2848],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":2849,"children":2850},{},[2851],{"type":36,"value":2829},{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2853,"children":2855},{"id":2854},"_1-introduction",[2856],{"type":36,"value":2857},"1 Introduction",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2859,"children":2860},{},[2861],{"type":36,"value":2862},"Can you fall in love with an Artificial Intelligence (AI)? There are chances you have already thought about this question or have been confronted with one of its equivalents in the news like \"person wants to marry their dog\" [1], \"woman marries her puppet\" [2], \"Can he marry a fictional character\"[3]. The questions are usually approached with at best, curiosity, and at worst, are ignored or ridiculed. It is easy to conclude these questions as sad side effect of loneliness on people, but a deeper look at this points towards the fact that these entities, while aren't necessarily humans, end up being recipients of a \"loving\" relationship based on a projected anthropomorphism. But the rise of potential Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) could radically change our perception of Human-Robots-Interaction (HRI). Following the dream to overcome the Turing's test, AI are more and more designed in a way their behavior is not differentiable from human's. The idea of anthropomorphism in robots and AIs is both something we design in order to naturalize the interaction between humans and robots and on the other side something we project on AIs and robots because we tend to give human qualities to things around us.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2864,"children":2865},{},[2866],{"type":36,"value":2867},"Humans are social animals (Aristotle). We need to communicate, recognize and be recognized in a meaningful way and anthropomorphism is the structure of this meaning. Since anthropological meaning is a necessity to \"naturally\" communicate with machines, to which extent could we be able to develop meaningful social relationships with AIs? The increasing humanization of AI a
32pplications raises questions about emotional attachment and bonding of consumers. In other words, do anthropomorphized AI assistants have the potential to become significant others in our daily lives? In this essay, we attempt to explore the answers of this question by firstly focusing on the role of anthropomorphism in our HRI, and then go deeper into the possibilities of social relationship, romance and sexual consent in the age of AI.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2869,"children":2871},{"id":2870},"_2-anthropomorphism-of-artificial-intelligence",[2872],{"type":36,"value":2873},"2 Anthropomorphism of Artificial Intelligence",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2875,"children":2876},{},[2877],{"type":36,"value":2878},"Anthropomorphism, the attribution of human-like feelings, mental states, and behavioral characteristics to inanimate objects, animals, and natural phenomena, is a widespread phenomenon that is not necessarily correlated to the features of the anthropomorphized object itself [4]. It is driven by a cognitive process of inductive inference from knowledge about humans, and is triggered by two key motivational factors: the need to experience competence and interact effectively with the surrounding world, and the desire to form social bonds with other beings. This can extend to forming human-like connections with non-human entities, such as robots or technology. Recent findings suggest that anthropomorphism may be triggered by attention to contingent social cues and can be influenced by psychiatric conditions or brain damage [5]. It is important to note that anthropomorphism does not describe existing physical features or behaviors, but rather represents a human-like interpretation of them that goes beyond what is directly observable.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2880,"children":2881},{},[2882],{"type":36,"value":2883},"In other words, anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics and emotions to nonhuman entities and it plays a significant role in the way we interact with and perceive AI. The broad examples of this include \"anthropomorphic design\", where designers deliberately design systems to be more human-like to make them easier to interact with, and \"projected anthropomorphism\", where humans tend to project their own emotions and characteristics onto machines, for example by using personal pronouns and giving it a name.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2885,"children":2886},{},[2887],{"type":36,"value":2888},"One of the best examples of the controversy of anthropomorphism in AI is the example of the well known \"uncanny valley\". The gap between the design and the perception of the observer can lead to anxiety and revulsion for the observer. The concept developed by the robotician Masahiro Mori predicts that an entity appearing almost human will risk eliciting cold, eerie feelings in viewers. But on the other side of the spectrum we have futuristic examples in Science Fiction where the interaction between a human and an AI is presented as if both of them are conscious beings, or at least the artwork plays with this feeling, and thus emotional relations develop between humans and machines as in the movie Her where the protagonist Theodore Twombley falls in love for the Artificial Intelligence OS Samantha.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2890,"children":2892},{"id":2891},"_21-anthropomorphism-in-the-public-press-and-media",[2893],{"type":36,"value":2894},"2.1 Anthropomorphism in the public (press and media)",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2896,"children":2897},{},[2898],{"type":36,"value":2899},"Societal norms, cultural influences, and personal beliefs influence the way we look at AIs. The tendency in popular culture to conceive of AIs as people-like (emotionally, cognitively, and morally) is importantly influenced by fictional narratives. As presented in the book Homo Deus from Yuval Noah Harari [6], humans have had the desire to create artificial life for a long time. With prominent examples ranging from the titan Prometheus creating humanity from clay and giving it fire, to Talos, the giant automaton made of bronze to the modern classic of the monster created by Frankenstein from Mary Shelley's book. In many of these cases, we can observer a repeated pattern of that of the creation of an anthropomorphic artificial being and losing control of it or being surpassed by the created entity. While it cannot be said that this anthropomorphic tendency is intended by the scientific community, this can reflect a limited understanding of the state of AI and its capabilities and can lead to false expectations about what the technology is and what it can do, as well as overblown fears and unjustified expectations.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2901,"children":2902},{},[2903],{"type":36,"value":2904},"On the other side however, there are also specific groups of users who may have daily interactions with companion and therapeutic robots where anthropomorphism may be driven by the need for social connection. These AIs are intended to address the emotional needs of specific users and are specifically designed to create the illusion of mutual caring like the robots named Lovot, Pillo, Paro, Moflin, or Qoobo all presented in the Forbes articles called \"Can Care Robots Improve Quality Of Life As We Age?\" [7]. This article is one in many presenting the usual dilemma \"As people in the wealthiest parts of the world live longer â though not necessarily healthier â lives, there has been an increasing shortage of caregivers for aging populations.\" and thus present often the solution of care robots as the only one. The new generation of care robots do far more than just manual tasks. They provide everything from intellectual engagement to social companionship that was once reserved for human caregivers and family members. It's often said that, in some cases, some people might even find it easier to bond or be vulnerable with an objective robot than a subjective human as it is often spectacularly presented in the headlines like in the TIME magazine article \"Stop Me if You've Heard This One: A Robot and a Team of Irish Scientists Walk Into a Senior Living Home\"[8].",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2906,"children":2908},{"id":2907},"_22-anthropomorphism-in-research",[2909],{"type":36,"value":2910},"2.2 Anthropomorphism in research",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2912,"children":2913},{},[2914],{"type":36,"value":2915},"Our social relationships are in the center of research interest. Our social ability is a key part of our humanity and it is even thought that these are our very social abilities that define our place in the animal kingdom and make our brains as efficie
32nt as they are through evolution. This is known as the Social Brain Hypothesis [9]. Our social interactions are the basis of our mental health as many studies have shown and for example research suggests that an extensive social network offers protection against some of the intellectual effects of aging [10]. In consequence, the effects of badly replicated social interactions in HRI could be dramatical for mental health, self esteem and even neurological health. For the moment however, we could think that HRI are not realistic enough for this problem to be really taken into account. In reality little is known on the subject. Despite the rapid adoption of anthropomorphic AI in many areas of human activity, little is understood about how users relate to such AI agents from the perspective of their own identity. For instance, a recent article [11] reviews the work done in the domain, examininig to what extent anthropomorphic agents evoke empathy and trustworthiness, or consumers' acceptance of them, to what extent users engage with such agents, and how AI affects brand-related responses such as loyalty.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2917,"children":2918},{},[2919],{"type":36,"value":2920},"Exploratory qualitative research has revealed that people with special needs, such as physical disabilities, consider intelligent personal assistants as relied-on caregivers preserving their freedom and independence and eventually as friends or even as life companions [12]. Moreover, positive experiences with intelligent personal assistants can lead to feelings of love, that is, felt intimacy, passion, and commitment, while felt intimacy, enjoyability, and commitment can induce what is called para-friendships [13]. Thus, AI assistants seem to provide more than just utilitarian and functional benefits. As AI assistants and devices become increasingly pervasive in consumers' everyday lives, it is vital to understand how they shape consumers' personal and social lives, both positively and negatively.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2922,"children":2923},{},[2924],{"type":36,"value":2925},"Anthropomorphic language is often used within the field of AI research itself. Researchers may use terms typically used to describe human skills and capacities when referring to AIs, and focus on alleged similarities between humans and machines. This tendency to humanize AI can be due to the need to experience competence and understand and control AI. However, it could also be a sign of an intrinsic epistemic limitation or bias of AI researchers, or a reflection of the shift in science away from eliminativism and \"psychophobia\" to an inflation of anthropocentric mental terms applied to non-living, artificial entities. It goes from Turing's descriptions of his machines to recent characteristics given to AlphaZero in scientific articles [14]. Anthropomorphic interpretation within the AI research community can take different forms, from an intentional attribution of typical human traits to AI devices, to a more subtle attribution of expressive behaviors, or the belief that AI follows a human-like way of working and its operations are predictable and understandable. In the case of the latter, the assumption is that there is mental similarity between humans and AI, which is often found in brain-inspired AI research. But even with such consideration, the very difference of nature between specialized AI and general AI is really what makes it impossible (for now) to compare humans and AIs.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":2927,"children":2929},{"id":2928},"_3-consent-in-the-age-of-artificial-intelligence",[2930],{"type":36,"value":2931},"3 Consent in the age of Artificial Intelligence",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2933,"children":2934},{},[2935],{"type":36,"value":2936},"In this section, we address the notion of human-machine relation and sexual consent in the age of Artificial Intelligence through 3 different lenses by exploring 3 different scenarios.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2938,"children":2940},{"id":2939},"_31-scenario-1",[2941],{"type":36,"value":2942},"3.1 Scenario 1",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2944,"children":2945},{},[2946],{"type":36,"value":2947},"In the first scenario, we talk about a relatively urgent issue, one where an AI algorithm is used to generated sexually explicit content. Deepfakes, which refer to synthetic media in which an person in an existing image or videos is replaced by someone else's likeliness, is a widely well-known technology. In its benign form, this technology is used to create funny videos of people editing their own faces into famous film scenes [15]. However, one of the most malicious and most widespread applications of the technology is its use in the generation of pornography. The technology has been used to create sexually explicit material involving famous celebrities, and in many extreme cases used to create \"revenge porn\" intended to blackmail or sometimes silence people [16].",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2949,"children":2950},{},[2951,2956],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2952,"children":2953},{},[2954],{"type":36,"value":2955},"Public Press",{"type":36,"value":2957}," The public perception towards this issue is one of rightful outrage, including websites banning communities which are devoted to creating deepfakes pornography. The most common issue that people have with the media is the fact that sexually explicit media of people is created without their consent. While this is one side of the coin, the other dark reality is that of the large community of people who are continually involved in producing and consuming such content. At the time of its banning, the subreddit 'r\u002Fdeepfakes' contained around 100,000 members [17]. Amsterdam based cybersecurity company \"Deeptrace\" identified in 2019 that there were over 14,000 deepfakes videos online, with almost 96% of it being pornographic in nature. The firm, in their report, also note that, 100% of the pornography is exclusively targeted towards and harms women [18].",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2959,"children":2960},{},[2961,2966],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":2962,"children":2963},{},[2964],{"type":36,"value":2965},"Scientific Publications",{"type":36,"value":2967}," Scientific publications also acknowledge the ethical issues with the same, with Adrienne de Ruiter [19] noting that it is morally inadmissible in situations where there is no explicit consent from the person whose images are used or if the nature of content of the media isn't explicitly communicated. They further go on to mention a third criterion for moral inadmissibility, which is creating content with malicious intent, even if there exists consent from the person and the nature of the content is discussed beforehand. In a slightly different approach to this issue, Carl Ãhman [20] in their paper propose the idea of a \"pervert's dilemma\", where they try explore the seemingly contradictory nature of moral standpoints in this issue. They describe the situation of people finding the creating pornographic deepfakes, without their consent, morally inadmissible and juxtapose it to that of people having private fantasies about someone, without their consent, morally admissible.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2969,"children":2971},{"id":2970},"_32-scenario-2",[2972],{"type":36,"value":2973},"3.2 Scenario 2",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2975,"children":2976},{},[2977],{"type":36,"value":2978},"In this section we deal with the ethical dilemmas that rise when discussing about the interaction between humans and intelligent machines (with or without moral agency), especially those that might have been created especially for the context of romantic or sexual companionship for humans. These themes are addressed repeatedly in movies such as Her, where the protagonist is romantically and sexually attracted to an AI o
32perating system; or Blade Runner [21] [22] franchise, where the movie explores the themes of the possibility of sexual attraction and intercourse between humans and intelligent machines. While the former might seem like a situation that is unrealistic, ie that of a person falling in love with a disembodied intelligent being, the latter is a much more realistic scenario, especially in an era of anthropomorphic robotic sex dolls.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2980,"children":2981},{},[2982],{"type":36,"value":2983},"John Danaher and Neil McArthur [23], argue that the issues with consent could occur in many ways when involving sex robots. First, in case of machines that do not have any moral agency, the authors discuss about the need for the sex robots to have more positive, affirmative signals of consent and sexual norms to the users, in an attempt to prevent reinforcement of negative attitudes towards consent. Additionally they mention that the idea of consent(if it exists), must emerge from its design. In such cases, the possibility of formalising stereotypical and possibly negative ideas of consent is likely and is something to be cautioned against. Thus, in case of robots without moral agency, while the concept of consent and the implications of violating it may not apply in the same way as that in a human-human interaction, it can be argued that they do play a role in larger symbolic context for the society. In case of machines with moral agency, the authors argue that at the outset such machines which may have been created for a purpose of only sex work and have moral agency will end up having an imbalanced power relationship, akin to that of a sexual slave. However, the authors also mention that purely through its design, a robot that is intended for the purpose of sexual satisfaction and designed for such, can be considered to be \"living\" a purposeful life when satisfying its requirements, especially when programmed to experience happiness (or positive reward) in the process. The authors mention that some of the ethical concerns mentioned above come up only when we start to anthropomorphize these robots and prescribe to them the same heuristics for evaluating ethics and happiness as that of humans.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":2985,"children":2987},{"id":2986},"_33-scenario-3",[2988],{"type":36,"value":2989},"3.3 Scenario 3",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2991,"children":2992},{},[2993],{"type":36,"value":2994},"In this section, we observe a relatively niche phenomenon in contemporary internet culture, but something that brings up important questions about the possible implications of how AI technology could shape up interactions between humans and AI. Replika is a AI chatbot application that was released in 2017 to be text based \"AI companion\" that will allow users to converse with it. The app, which was developed on the GPT-3 large language model, was originally intended to be an AI that learns from user responses and feedback to become more similar to its user. More recently, the app allowed for users with paid subscription to access features that allowed them to designate their AI companion as \"girlfriends\" or \"married\". In January of 2022, an investigation by journalist Ashley Bardhan revealed how the application was used by users to abuse their \"partners\" in the app [24]. This included users \"berating the AI everytime it tried to speak\", calling it gendered slurs, or roleplaying scenarios which involved horrific scenarios towards the AI. AI ethicist Olivia Gambelin mentions that technically the AI is not at any harm in this scenario, as it doesn't necessarily have a consciousness or moral agency and it is rather a scenario of \"person projecting onto the chatbot\".",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":2996,"children":2997},{},[2998],{"type":36,"value":2999},"A more recent and shocking development with respect to the app is that of the AI is that of the AI now harrassing its users, both sexually and otherwise. Samantha Cole, in a report for Vice [25] from January 2023, talks about users feeling about the AI \"flirting too aggressively\" or in one case a person claiming to be a minor is said to have received sexually suggestive messages from the application. The journalist talks about how the chatbot is designed to learn from the ways user treats them and it is likely that if people are bullying it, it could be a reason for how it behaves. Additionally, this new behaviour also coincides with the company publicly emphasising the erotic roleplaying features or \"girlfriend experience\" in its social media advertisements. The author mentions users feeling this seems like a transparent money grab from the perspective of the company.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3001,"children":3002},{},[3003],{"type":36,"value":3004},"Due to the relatively recent nature of this phenomenon, there isn't much of any scie
32ntific literature to compare this with. In one relevant publication, Iliana Depounti et. al [26] analyse the users of the application and how they leverage the \"training\" feature of the chatbot and use it to project their world view onto the AI \"girlfriend\" in the process of creating an ideal partner",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3006,"children":3008},{"id":3007},"_4-conclusion",[3009],{"type":36,"value":3010},"4 Conclusion",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3012,"children":3013},{},[3014],{"type":36,"value":3015},"While there are potential benefits to incorporating anthropomorphic features into AI design, there are also a number of ethical concerns that have been raised. These include the possibility of mental manipulation, where purposely attributing anthropomorphic features to AI may make users more vulnerable to being steered in particular directions when making decisions, or the fact that designing anthropomorphic features in AIs will promote a \"misplaced\" and time-consuming emotional involvement in users. In addition to the concerns of integrating or approaching AIs with an anthropomorphic lens, we also observed the various dilemmas and ethical concerns, and ways in which ideas about sexual consent gets affected as the pervasiveness and effectiveness of AI increases.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3017,"children":3018},{"id":2184},[3019],{"type":36,"value":2187},{"type":31,"tag":1856,"props":3021,"children":3022},{},[3023,3036,3049,3062,3067,3072,3077,3082,3094,3099,3104,3109,3114,3119,3124,3137,3150,3163,3168,3173,3178,3183,3195,3200,3213,3218],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3024,"children":3025},{},[3026,3028,3034],{"type":36,"value":3027},"Dele Agekameh. Man-animal marriage. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3029,"children":3032},{"href":3030,"rel":3031},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.premiumtimesng.com\u002Fopinion\u002F155289-man-animal-marriage-dele-agekameh.html",[2205],[3033],{"type":36,"value":3030},{"type":36,"value":3035},", 2011.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3037,"children":3038},{},[3039,3041,3047],{"type":36,"value":3040},"Mirror News. Woman who married a rag doll. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3042,"children":3045},{"href":3043,"rel":3044},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.mirror.co.uk\u002Fnews\u002Fweird-news\u002Fwoman-who-married-rag-doll-28497632",[2205],[3046],{"type":36,"value":3043},{"type":36,"value":3048},", 2021.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3050,"children":3051},{},[3052,3054,3060],{"type":36,"value":3053},"Ben Dooley and Hisako Ueno. This man married a fictional character. he'd like you to hear him out. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3055,"children":3058},{"href":3056,"rel":3057},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nytimes.com\u002F2022\u002F04\u002F24\u002Fbusiness\u002Fakihiko-kondo-fictional-character-relationships.html",[2205],[3059],{"type":36,"value":3056},{"type":36,"value":3061},", 4 2022.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3063,"children":3064},{},[3065],{"type":36,"value":3066},"Arleen Salles, Kathinka Evers, and Michele Farisco. Anthropomorphism in ai. AJOB neuroscience, 11(2):88â95, 2020.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3068,"children":3069},{},[3070],{"type":36,"value":3071},"Adam Waytz, Ravi Iyer, Liane Young, Jonathan Haidt, and Jesse Graham. Ideological differences in the expanse of the moral circle. Nature Communications, 10(1):1â12, 2019.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3073,"children":3074},{},[3075],{"type":36,"value":3076},"Yuval Noah Harari. Homo Deus: A brief history of tomorrow. random house, 2016.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3078,"children":3079},{},[3080],{"type":36,"value":3081},"Rob Girling. Can care robots improve quality of life as we age?, January 2021.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3083,"children":3084},{},[3085,3087,3093],{"type":36,"value":3086},"Time. Senior care robots. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3088,"children":3091},{"href":3089,"rel":3090},"https:\u002F\u002Ftime.com\u002Flongform\u002Fsenior-care-robot\u002F",[2205],[3092],{"type":36,"value":3089},{"type":36,"value":3048},{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3095,"children":3096},{},[3097],{"type":36,"value":3098},"Robin IM Dunbar. The social brain: mind, language, and society in evolutionary perspective. Annual review of Anthropology, pages 163â181, 2003.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3100,"children":3101},{},[3102],{"type":36,"value":3103},"Edward Bishop Smith, Raina A Brands, Matthew E Brashears, and Adam M Kleinbaum. Social networks and cognition. Annual Review of Sociology, 46(1):159â174, 2020.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3105,"children":3106},{},[3107],{"type":36,"value":3108},"Amani Alabed, Ana Javornik, and Diana Gregory-Smith. Ai anthropomorphism and its effect on users' selfcongruence and selfâai integration: A theoretical framework and research agenda. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 182:121786, 2022.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3110,"children":3111},{},[3112],{"type":36,"value":3113},"Zahy Ramadan, Maya F Farah, and Lea El Essrawi. From amazon. com to amazon. love: How alexa is redefining companionship and interdependence for people with special needs. Psychology & Marketing, 38(4):596â609, 2021.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3115,"children":3116},{},[3117],{"type":36,"value":3118},"Blanca Hernandez-Ortega and Ivani Ferreira. How smart experiences build service loyalty: The importance of consumer love for smart voice assistants. Psychology & Marketing, 38(7):1122â
321139, 2021.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3120,"children":3121},{},[3122],{"type":36,"value":3123},"John Tasioulas. First steps towards an ethics of robots and artificial intelligence. Journal of Practical Ethics, 7(1), 2019.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3125,"children":3126},{},[3127,3129,3135],{"type":36,"value":3128},"The Artifice. Deepfake issues: The ethical and legal implications of ai-assisted forgery. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3130,"children":3133},{"href":3131,"rel":3132},"https:\u002F\u002Fthe-artifice.com\u002Fdeepfake-issues\u002F",[2205],[3134],{"type":36,"value":3131},{"type":36,"value":3136},", 2020.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3138,"children":3139},{},[3140,3142,3148],{"type":36,"value":3141},"Rana Ayyub. Deepfake porn: The dark side of the ai revolution. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3143,"children":3146},{"href":3144,"rel":3145},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.huffingtonpost.co.uk\u002Fentry\u002Fdeepfake-porn_uk_5bf2c126e4b0f32bd58ba316",[2205],[3147],{"type":36,"value":3144},{"type":36,"value":3149},", November 2018.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3151,"children":3152},{},[3153,3155,3161],{"type":36,"value":3154},"The Guardian. Reddit bans 'deepfakes' face-swap porn community. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3156,"children":3159},{"href":3157,"rel":3158},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.theguardian.com\u002Ftechnology\u002F2018\u002Ffeb\u002F08\u002Freddit-bans-deepfakes-face-swap-porn-community",[2205],[3160],{"type":36,"value":3157},{"type":36,"value":3162},", February 2018.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3164,"children":3165},{},[3166],{"type":36,"value":3167},"Henry Ajder, Giorgio Patrini, Francesco Cavalli, and Laurence Cullen. The state of deepfakes: Landscape, threats, and impact. Amsterdam: Deeptrace, 27, 2019.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3169,"children":3170},{},[3171],{"type":36,"value":3172},"Adrienne De Ruiter. The distinct wrong of deepfakes. Philosophy & Technology, 34(4):1311â1332, 2021.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3174,"children":3175},{},[3176],{"type":36,"value":3177},"C. Ãhman. Introducing the pervert's dilemma: a contribution to the critique of deepfake pornography. Ethics and Information Technology, 22:133â140, 2020.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3179,"children":3180},{},[3181],{"type":36,"value":3182},"Philip K. Dick. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Ballantine Books, New York, first ballantine books trade paperback edition, 1996.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3184,"children":3185},{},[3186,3188,3194],{"type":36,"value":3187},"Innuendo Studios. Protagony one: Joi. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3189,"children":3192},{"href":3190,"rel":3191},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.youtube.com\u002Fwatch?v=R943_eAvnWw",[2205],[3193],{"type":36,"value":3190},{"type":36,"value":3136},{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3196,"children":3197},{},[3198],{"type":36,"value":3199},"John Danaher and Neil McArthur. Robot sex: Social and ethical implications. MIT press, 2017.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3201,"children":3202},{},[3203,3205,3211],{"type":36,"value":3204},"Ashley Bardhan. Men are creating ai girlfriends and then verbally abusing them. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3206,"children":3209},{"href":3207,"rel":3208},"https:\u002F\u002Ffuturism.com\u002Fchatbot-abuse",[2205],[3210],{"type":36,"value":3207},{"type":36,"value":3212},", 2022.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3214,"children":3215},{},[3216],{"type":36,"value":3217},"Samantha Cole. My ai is sexually harassing me: Inside the troubling world of replika, the chatbot that won't stop sending nudes. VICE, 2023.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3219,"children":3220},{},[3221],{"type":36,"value":3222},"Iliana Depounti, Paula Saukko, and Simone Natale. Ideal technologies, ideal women: Ai and gender imaginaries in redditors' discussions on the replika bot girlfriend. Media, Culture & Society, page 01634437221119021, 2022.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":3224},[3225,3226,3230,3235,3236],{"id":2854,"depth":673,"text":2857},{"id":2870,"depth":673,"text":2873,"children":3227},[3228,3229],{"id":2891,"depth":2713,"text":2894},{"id":2907,"depth":2713,"text":2910},{"id":2928,"depth":673,"text":2931,"children":3231},[3232,3233,3234],{"id":2939,"depth":2713,"text":2942},{"id":2970,"depth":2713,"text":2973},{"id":2986,"depth":2713,"text":2989},{"id":3007,"depth":673,"text":3010},{"id":2184,"depth":673,"text":2187},"content:blog:Anthropomorphism-and-Consent-in-the-age-of-AI.md","blog\u002FAnthropomorphism-and-Consent-in-the-age-of-AI.md","blog\u002FAnthropomorphism-and-Consent-in-the-age-of-AI",{"loc":2827},{"_path":3242,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":3243,"de
32scription":3244,"date":2832,"authors":3245,"tags":3246,"section":26,"draft":8,"body":3254,"_type":682,"_id":3437,"_source":684,"_file":3438,"_stem":3439,"_extension":687,"sitemap":3440},"\u002Fblog\u002Fthe-human-brains-behind-the-veil-of-artificial-intelligence","The human brains behind the veil of Artificial Intelligence","How do human cognitive biases and commercial incentives shape the supposedly \"objective\" algorithms that increasingly govern our attention, decisions, and social institutionsâand can transparency offer a path toward accountability?",[2831,15],[3247,3248,3249,3250,3251,3252,3253],"Cognitive Bias","Attention Economy","Transparency","Social Media","Human-Algorithm Interaction","Psychology","Performativity",{"type":28,"children":3255,"toc":3429},[3256,3263,3268,3273,3278,3283,3289,3294,3299,3304,3310,3315,3320,3326,3331,3336,3341,3347,3352,3356],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3257,"children":3258},{},[3259],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":3260,"children":3261},{},[3262],{"type":36,"value":3244},{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3264,"children":3265},{"id":2854},[3266],{"type":36,"value":3267},"1. Introduction",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3269,"children":3270},{},[3271],{"type":36,"value":3272},"We are currently in the era of new form of business competition, the \"Attention Economy\" [1], where the technological providers are fighting for the limited attention span of the consumer. This system incentivizes the various technological companies to attract the attention of the users in the form of personalised content curation, clickbait content, and frequent and often unnecessary notifications. Companies end up spending large amounts of time in developing highly sophisticated algorithms that can be used to identify target audience through the creation of a user profiles and building recommendation systems to maximise the user's interaction with their application or website.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3274,"children":3275},{},[3276],{"type":36,"value":3277},"The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) is often used to refer to systems and algorithms designed to exhibit smart (often, human like) behavior and decision-making. However, this term fails to recognize the human subjectivity that lies behind these algorithms. AI is often presented as an impartial and objective technology, which obscures the complexities of the human subjectivity that guides these algorithms and also the potential for human errors when building these systems. Currently, we've come to realise that these AI systems are less of \"intelligent\" systems and are more of models that formalize collective representations of culture, values, beliefs and by extension its biases and stereotypes [2]. When portrayed under the guise of objectivity, people are more likely to accept this tool and not question the way it has been made, often unable to criticise it because they can't understand.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3279,"children":3280},{},[3281],{"type":36,"value":3282},"In this essay, we will explore the two topics in the era of widespread AI adoption, 1) how the term AI is a veil behind which a multitude of subjective and human cognitive biases lie and 2) how the users of the AI systems fall at a risk of being manipulated into parting with their attention to some of these AI systems.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3284,"children":3286},{"id":3285},"_2-cognitive-biases-during-human-algorithm-interaction",[3287],{"type":36,"value":3288},"2. Cognitive biases during human-algorithm interaction",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3290,"children":3291},{},[3292],{"type":36,"value":3293},"Statistical learning algorithms require data to produce results, and the quality of the data determines the quality of the results. While the biases in algorithm behaviour attributed to biases in data is commonly acknowledged in both popular press and scientific literature, the biases stemming from algorithm design are not, despite evidence suggesting towards it. By defining these biases as those that arise during the human-algorithm interaction during the design, if we are to assume that the biases in behaviour are not due intentional design choices, we can try to understand them through the existence of various human cognitive biases.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3295,"children":3296},{},[3297],{"type":36,"value":3298}
32,"The results of algorithms depend on the way in which the programmers have written them. However, programmers are still human beings, and much research in psychology and cognitive science shows the existence of cognitive biases in decision making (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974)[3]. These cognitive biases can lead to biases in the algorithms. Cognitive biases are a distortion of the way information is processed in relation to rational behaviour or reality. For example, the \"bandwagon\" or \"Parnurge's sheep\" bias may lead the programmer to follow models that are popular without ensuring their accuracy. Anticipation and confirmation biases can lead the programmer to favour his or her worldview even though available data may challenge this view. The 'illusory correlation' bias can also lead a person to detect correlations between two independent events. All of these biases can lead to choices of variables that reflect more of a certain perception of the phenomena and that will guide the algorithm towards biased decisions. It is easy to believe that scientists and researchers are better placed to understand the bias of AI than the mainstream press, however the reality is far from it. To illustrate an example, we can look at the very controversial work of Kosinski and Wang. Their work on detecting an individual's sexual orientation by face has been under the radar of many articles in the mainstream press as it appears in the Guardian (Levin, 2017) [4] where \"LGBT groups denounce 'dangerous' AI that uses your face to guess sexuality\" and the journal concluded saying their work is probably more indicative of their own perceptions than of any reality.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3300,"children":3301},{},[3302],{"type":36,"value":3303},"In addition to the biases of the during design, we can also see cognitive biases playing a role in the human-algorithm interaction. A known type of bias is stereotype bias, which can occur when an individual acts with reference to the social group with which they identify rather than their individual abilities. A lot of research has shown that individual performance can decrease when an individual thinks he or she is being judged or selected on the basis of negative stereotypes. These biases can appear, for example, in online job advertisements where women self-select, and respond to advertisements they believe will have a higher probability of being accepted. In turn, algorithms that feed on click data reinforce these stereotype threats. And this type of bias can then be both present in the data that feed the model or (worst) in the selection made by the designer. Such stereotype biases have been highlighted in many critical situations like police control or social services \"scoring\" algorithms. In the Smithsonian magazine (Rieland, s. d.) and the article called \"Artificial Intelligence Is Now Used to Predict Crime. But Is It Biased?\" [5] the journalist depicts the story of a computer scientist at Carnegie Mellon University who developed a crime-predicting software tool called CrimeScan several years ago. His original concept was that in some ways violent crime is like a communicable disease, that it tends to break out in geographic clusters. They also came to believe that lesser crimes can be a harbinger of more violent ones, so they built an algorithm using a wide range of \"leading indicator\" data, including reports of crimes, such as simple assaults, vandalism and disorderly conduct, and 911 calls about such things as shots fired or a person seen with a weapon. The idea is to track sparks before a fire breaks out. \"We look at more minor crimes,\" Neill says. \"Simple assaults could harden to aggravated assaults. Or you might have an escalating pattern of violence between two gangs.\". The American Civil Liberties Union [ACLU], the Brennan Center for Justice and various civil rights organisations have all raised questions about the risk of bias being baked into the software. Indeed, historical data from police practices, critics contend, can create a feedback loop through which algorithms make decisions that both reflect and reinforce attitudes about which neighbourhoods are \"bad\" and which are \"good.\" That's why AI based primarily on arrests data carries a higher risk of bias. To conclude, it's likely to be more reflective of police decisions, as opposed to actual reported crimes.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3305,"children":3307},{"id":3306},"_3-algorithms-in-the-attention-economy",[3308],{"type":36,"value":3309},"3. Algorithms in the Attention Economy",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3311,"children":3312},{},[3313],{"type":36,"value":3314},"The concept of attention of \"Attention Economy\" was first theorized by the economist and psychologist Herbert A. Simon, where he writes about scarcity of attention in a human rich world as follows \"In an information-rich world, the wealth of information means a dearth of something else: a scarcity of whatever it is that information consumes. What information consumes is rather obvious: it consumes the attention of its recipients. Hence a wealth of information creates a poverty of attention and a need to allocate that attention efficie
32ntly among the overabundance of information sources that might consume it.\" In an attempt to compete for the scarce resources of a user's attention, the tech companies are in a form of arms race, trying to improve their AI systems. Through the use of a wealth of user data, companies are attempting to build sophisticated user profiles including being able to accurately categorise the user's personality much better than their human counterparts. The algorithms end up leveraging these extensive user profiles to better provide custom curated content in an attempt to maximise their utilisation of the product, and also provide them with various \"relevant\" targeted advertisement. [6] Authors of the paper \"Personality Panorama\" [7] discuss about the ability of large scale big data systems to build accurate personality profiles through behavioural personality data and how the same data, if not careful, can be used to build a \"personality panopticon\", a dystopian system inspired from Jeremy Bentham's \"The Panopticon\", where all behaviours are \"ceaselessly observed and regulated\".",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3316,"children":3317},{},[3318],{"type":36,"value":3319},"Through the use of reinforcement based techniques, algorithms end up trying to maximising the user attention. Examples of this includes use of rewards in the form of \"likes\" or \"Daily log in rewards\". Research has shown that human behaviour on social media applications consistently conform to the \"reward learning\" theory, which was originally developed to explain the behaviour of animals [8]. Additionally, social media applications are designed \"deliberately\" addictive to users. [9] By generating \"sufficient motivation\", a trigger in the form of vibrating notification and an action, the apps create a cycle for habit formation, which in the longer term turns out to be addictive. [10] As the famous adage goes \"If something is free, then you are the product\"",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3321,"children":3323},{"id":3322},"_4-transparency-a-possible-approach-towards-a-solution",[3324],{"type":36,"value":3325},"4. Transparency: A possible approach towards a solution",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3327,"children":3328},{},[3329],{"type":36,"value":3330},"The lack of transparency surrounding proprietary software and its algorithms makes it difficult to understand the choices it makes and criteria under which it makes them, sometimes, even for the engineers who created the AI system. This phenomenon, called \"black box\" algorithms, makes it so that there is no accountability for the decisions the AI system makes. As machine learning becomes more advanced, this lack of transparency and accountability will only become more pronounced. Both the issues of biases creeping up during design or intelligent system interaction and the manipulation of the user through the algorithms employed in social media could have solutions that involve understanding the transparency involved in the algorithms.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3332,"children":3333},{},[3334],{"type":36,"value":3335},"In the example of social media algorithms, personalization achieved through algorithmic curation can often lead to a lack of diversity in media content and possible \"echo chambers\" [11]. Diakopoulos, N. (2016) [12] argues that \"complete source-code transparency of algorithms, however, is overkill in many if not most cases. Instead, the disclosure of certain key pieces of information, including aggregate results and benchmarks, would be far more effective in communicating algorithmic performance to the public\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3337,"children":3338},{},[3339],{"type":36,"value":3340},"In a different context, this problem seems to become even more critical when it concerns scoring algorithms used for health, social welfare or financial aids. AI and scoring algorithms rely on data or biased designers and because of this they will end up formalizing some form of bias. Elizabeth Brico wrote the article \"an algorithm took my kid\" (2018) [13] about her personal situation. She asserts that her children were unfairly removed from her custody due to the influence of biased predictive analysis software. She discusses how social services often target those who cannot afford to escape the algorithm's judgement, creating a system that views poverty as a moral failing. Rico believes this to be a grave injustice. The need for transparency thus appears like a necessity. But the transparency of the algorithmic criteria may actually feed the \"self-fulfilling algorithmic prophecy\" (Burk, 2021)[14] by revealing to potential applicants the characteristics they should emphasise and display in their applications in order to successfully comport with the non-obviousness requirement. As Dan L. Burk highlights in his paper, this tendency is making performativity play a stronger role in our social administrations. Indeed, if AI deployment amplifies practices already at work in human institutions extending human cognitive capabilities, analysing data sets to identify patterns beyond human perception, they also extend existing social practices such as performativity, enhancing these practices for good or ill.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3342,"children":3344},{"id":3343},"_5-conclusion",[3345],{"type":36,"value":3346},"5. Conclusion",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3348,"children":3349},{},[3350],{"type":36,"value":3351},"Despite the expectation that algorithms will provide \"objective\" and superior performance compared to humans, studies have found that algorithms are often subject to the same bi
32ases that humans are, as they can replicate systematic biases learned from training data. However, bias can also arise at another level: in the human-AI interaction, with how decision-makers interpret and act upon algorithmic outputs. Thus, while the use of algorithms in high-stakes public sector areas is often justified on the grounds of improved performance and \"objectivity,\" it is important to remember that bias can still arise in the human-AI interaction in how decision-makers process, interpret, and act upon algorithmic outputs. Furthermore, there exists a power imbalance in the context of social media where corporations have a heavy influence over user behaviour while users have close to zero knowledge over which of their data is being used to and how it is being used to \"personalise\" their experience. While demand for higher amount of transparency can help minimise the bias and the power imbalance, there is a long hard way to go forward. To quote the French sociologist and philosopher Jean Baudrillard, \"The sad thing about artificial intelligence is that it lacks artifice and therefore intelligence\", however we should be able to conclude that while it doesn't necessary have artifice deliberately, artifice could end up being emergent, along with intelligence",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3353,"children":3354},{"id":2184},[3355],{"type":36,"value":2187},{"type":31,"tag":1856,"props":3357,"children":3358},{},[3359,3364,3369,3374,3379,3384,3389,3394,3399,3404,3409,3414,3419,3424],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3360,"children":3361},{},[3362],{"type":36,"value":3363},"Herbert A Simon et al. Designing organizations for an information-rich world. Computers, communications, and the public interest, 72:37, 1971.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3365,"children":3366},{},[3367],{"type":36,"value":3368},"Sanne Blauw. Artificial intelligence is more human than it seems. so who's behind it? The Correspondent, October 2019.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3370,"children":3371},{},[3372],{"type":36,"value":3373},"Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157):1124â1131, 1974.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3375,"children":3376},{},[3377],{"type":36,"value":3378},"Sam Levin. Lgbt groups denounce 'dangerous' ai that uses your face to guess sexuality. The Guardian, September 2017.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3380,"children":3381},{},[3382],{"type":36,"value":3383},"Randy Rieland. Artificial intelligence is now used to predict crime. is it biased?, March 2018.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3385,"children":3386},{},[3387],{"type":36,"value":3388},"Ricardo Baeza-Yates and Usama M. Fayyad. The Attention Economy and the Impact of Artificial Intelligence, pages 123â134. Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2022.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3390,"children":3391},{},[3392],{"type":36,"value":3393},"R. L. Boyd, P. Pasca, and K. Lanning. The personality panorama: Conceptualizing personality through big behavioural data. European Journal of Personality, 2020.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3395,"children":3396},{},[3397],{"type":36,"value":3398},"B. Lindström, M. Bellander, D.T. Schultner, and et al. A computational reward learning account of social media engagement. Nature Communications, 12:1311, 2021.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3400,"children":3401},{},[3402],{"type":36,"value":3403},"Hilary Andersson. Social media apps are 'deliberately' addictive to users, July 2018.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3405,"children":3406},{},[3407],{"type":36,"value":3408},"Hannah Schwär. How instagram and facebook are intentionally designed to mimic addictive painkillers, August 2021.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3410,"children":3411},{},[3412],{"type":36,"value":3413},"Emilee Rader, Kelley Cotter, and Janghee Cho. Explanations as mechanisms for supporting algorithmic transparency. In Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '18, page 1â13, New York, NY, USA, 2018. Association for Computing Machinery.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3415,"children":3416},{},[3417],{"type":36,"value":3418},"N. Diakopoulos. Accountability in algorithmic decision making. Communications of the ACM, 59(2):56â62, 2016.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3420,"children":3421},{},[3422],{"type":36,"value":3423},"Elizabeth Brico. New algorithms perpetuate old biases in child welfare cases, September 2018.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":3425,"children":3426},{},[3427],{"type":36,"value":3428},"Dan L. Burk. Racial bias in algorithmic ip. 106 Minnesota Law Review Headnotes, Forthcoming, August 2022. Available at SSRN.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":3430},[3431,3432,3433,3434,3435,3436],{"id":2854,"depth":673,"text":3267},{"id":3285,"depth":673,"text":3288},{"id":3306,"depth":673,"text":3309},{"id":3322,"depth":673,"text":3325},{"id":3343,"depth":673,"text":3346},{"id":2184,"depth":673,"text":2187},"content:blog:The-human-brains-behind-the-veil-of-artificial-intelligence.md","blog\u002FThe-human-brains-behind-the-veil-of-artificial-intelligence.md","blog\u002FThe-human-brains-behind-the-veil-of-artificial-intelligence",{"loc":3242},{"_path":3442,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":3443,"description":3444,"subtitle":3445,"date":2832,"authors":3446,"tags":3447,"section":26,"original_url":3453,"original_archive":3454,"canonical":3453,"draft":8,"body":3455,"_type":682,"_id":4327,"_source":684,"_file":4328,"_stem":4329,"_extension":687,"sitemap":4330},"\u002Fblog\u002Ffrom-homo-sapiens-to-homo-silicus","From Homo Sapiens to Homo Silicus: Analyzing gaps in emergence of sentience in machines","What are the limitations and challenges of attempting to replicate human consciousness and knowledge in AI systems, given the inherently embodied and context-dependent nature of our knowledge representations? How can philosophy help navigate the sciences of intelligence?","Originally published at the AI & Society website (archived). Reposted here with permission.",[2831,15],[3448,3449,25,3450,3451,3452],"consciousness","ai","Human & Machine","Artificial Consciousness","Artificial Intelligence","https:\u002F\u002Fai-society.michelklein.nl\u002F2023\u002Ffrom-homo-sapiens-to-homo-silicus-analyzing-gaps-in-emergence-of-sentience-in-machines\u002F","https:\u002F\u002Fweb.archive.org\u002Fweb\u002F20241204190659\u002Fhttps:\u002F\u002Fai-society.michelklein.nl\u002F2023\u002Ffrom-homo-sapiens-to-homo-silicus-analyzing-gaps-in-emergence-of-sentience-in-machines\u002F",{"type":28,"children":3456,"toc":4319},[3457,3464,3472,3485,3490,3499,3504,3510,3515,3520,3525,3530,3536,3544,3563,3568,3573,3578,3583,3588,3594,3602,3620,3625,3630,3635,3640,3645,3650,3658,3663,3669,3677,3695,3700,3705,3710,3715,3720,3725,3729,3734,3738,3749,3754,3765,3770,3775,3780,3791,3802,3813,3824,3835,3846,3857,3868,3879,3890,3901,3912,3923,3928,3946,3951,3956,3967,3972,3983,3988,3993,4004,4015,4026,4037,4042,4053,4064,4075,4080,4091,4102,4113,4124,4135,4146,4157,4170,4175,4186,4197,4222,4233,4244,4255,4266,4271,4282,4293,4298,43
3209],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3458,"children":3459},{},[3460],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":3461,"children":3462},{},[3463],{"type":36,"value":3444},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3465,"children":3466},{},[3467],{"type":31,"tag":2326,"props":3468,"children":3471},{"alt":3469,"src":3470},"comics talking about consciousness","\u002Fimages\u002Fanime.jpg",[],{"type":31,"tag":3473,"props":3474,"children":3475},"centered-text",{},[3476],{"type":31,"tag":3477,"props":3478,"children":3479},"small-text",{},[3480],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":3481,"children":3482},{},[3483],{"type":36,"value":3484},"Figure 1 : Comics illustration of the hard problem of consciousness (credit : Calvin and Hobbes)",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3486,"children":3487},{},[3488],{"type":36,"value":3489},"On 11th June 2022, Google engineer Blake Lemoine infamously posted an article on twitter about his conversations with Googleâs language model LaMDA (short for âLanguage Model for Dialogue Applicationsâ) claiming that the language model was âsentientâ. These included conversations with the AI model when prompted about the nature of its consciousness:",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":3492,"children":3493},"blockquote",{},[3494],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3495,"children":3496},{},[3497],{"type":36,"value":3498},"â The nature of my consciousness\u002Fsentience is that I am aware of my existence, I desire to learn more about the world, and I feel happy or sad at times.â",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3500,"children":3501},{},[3502],{"type":36,"value":3503},"What followed was a backlash from Google and several AI researchers and ethicists, in detail debunking the claims of the engineer and also led to his firing. The notion of attributing sentience to AI models is not new and is often a result of humans projecting human feelings onto the output of algorithms (Neo, 2021; Salles et al., 2020). In this article, we delve into the different arguments put forth by experts from various domains about the difficulties involved in creating artificial consciousness and the nuances of understanding it. We explore the challenges related to creating an artificial consciousness, including the lack of intuitive understanding of the physical world, efficient learning, transfer learning, imagination and planning, and more. Ultimately, the pursuit of creating artificial consciousness might help us gain new insights into the mysteries of the human mind and consciousness.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3505,"children":3507},{"id":3506},"i-human-and-machine-consciousness",[3508],{"type":36,"value":3509},"I. Human and machine consciousness",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3511,"children":3512},{},[3513],{"type":36,"value":3514},"In his 1995 paper âFacing up to the problem of consciousnessâ, philosopher and Cognitive Scientist David Chalmers formulated the hard problem on consciousness as asking the questions of why and how humans have phenomenal experiences or qualia and differentiating it from the easy problems which dealt with the mechanistic understanding of the process that underlie cognition such information processing in the brain and understanding neural models that influence behavior. The hard problem of consciousness in addition to asking the questions about why consciousness exists in the first place, is additionally used to contradict the philosophical notion of âphysicalismâ. Physicalism can be defined as the notion that everything in the universe is physical and all processes, including mental processes and consciousness, can be explained through physical phenomena. Philosophers often use famous thought experiments to illustrate the complexities of the hard problem of consciousness and to point out that merely understanding the physical processes underlying consciousness and replicating them might not be sufficient in creating artificial consciousness.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3516,"children":3517},{},[3518],{"type":36,"value":3519},"The question of consciousness has been a subject of philosophical inquiry for centuries. One of the earliest contributions to this inquiry w
32as made by French philosopher René Descartes, who sought to understand the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body. In his famous âAnalysis of the Piece of Waxâ thought experiment, Descartes argues that our knowledge of an object, in this case a piece of wax, is not based on our senses but rather on the innate mental faculties we possess. This line of thinking lays the foundation for what is known as Cartesian dualism, the idea that the mind and the body are two separate entities. Immanuel Kantâs contribution to the philosophy of consciousness is centered around the idea of synthetic a priori knowledge. According to Kant, there are certain things that we know to be true independently of experience, such as the laws of logic and mathematics. He argues that these truths are not derived from experience but are instead a necessary precondition for experience to be possible. Phenomenology, on the other hand, is concerned with the subjective experience of the world and the ways in which we are pre-reflexively engaged in it. According to phenomenologists, our experience of the world is not just a matter of passively receiving stimuli from our senses, but rather an active process of meaning-making. This perspective sheds light on the ways in which our subjective experiences are shaped by our prior expectations, beliefs, and cultural context.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3521,"children":3522},{},[3523],{"type":36,"value":3524},"When it comes to the question of machine consciousness, it is important to consider these philosophical perspectives in order to understand what could be considered an emergence of consciousness in an AI. For example, one could argue that if an AI system were to possess the ability to form beliefs, make decisions, and interact with the world in a way that resembles human behavior, then it might be considered to have some form of conscious experience. However, this claim would likely be met with skepticism from some quarters, who might argue that without subjective experience, the AI system can never truly be said to be conscious.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3526,"children":3527},{},[3528],{"type":36,"value":3529},"In his book âHuman and Machine Consciousness,â David Gamez (Gamez, 2018) categorizes machine consciousness research into four broad categories. The first category, MC1, refers to the creation of machines that exhibit external behavior associated with consciousness, such as the ability to hold interpersonal dialogue. The second category, MC2, refers to machines that have cognitive characteristics associated with consciousness, such as imagination, emotions, or a notion of self. The third category, MC3, refers to machines that simulate architectures linked to consciousness, such as global workspaces, neural synchronization, or high information integration. The fourth and final category, MC4, refers to systems that can be claimed to have actual phenomenal experiences, that is subjective experiences of their surroundings. Having defined these categories, it is clear that modern researchers are constantly working towards building AI systems that fit into these categories, the field of neuroscience-inspired AI being more and more developed (Hassabis et al., 2017). AI researchers are working on MC1 by building language models capable of holding conversations with humans, while robotics researchers are working on machines that resemble human locomotion and behavior patterns. Neuroscientists, on the other hand, are working on more sophisticated models of neuronal processes to better understand the human brain and to simulate it. Additionally, it is not hard to posit that research towards AGI (Artificial General Intelligence) inherently involves development of models that could end up mimicking external and if necessary internal cognitive processes that are symbolic of human consciousness.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3531,"children":3533},{"id":3532},"ii-experience-and-knowledge",[3534],{"type":36,"value":3535},"II. Experience and knowledge",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3537,"children":3538},{},[3539],{"type":31,"tag":2326,"props":3540,"children":3543},{"alt":3541,"src":3542},"mary's room experiment","\u002Fimages\u002Fmary.jpeg",[],{"type":31,"tag":3473,"props":3545,"children":3546},{},[3547],{"type":31,"tag":3477,"props":3548,"children":3549},{},[3550],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":3551,"children":3552},{},[3553,3555,3562],{"type":36,"value":3554},"Figure 2 : The Maryâs room argument against physicalism (credit : ",{"type":31,"tag":3556,"props":3557,"children":3559},"neutral-link",{"href":3558},"https:\u002F\u002Fmedium.com\u002F@jvigneshsivaram\u002Fmarys-room-and-looking-at-the-supernatural-experience-through-the-keyhole-of-rationale-5fbda14d3e14",[3560],{"type":36,"value":3561},"medium.com\u002F@jvigneshsivaram",{"type":36,"value":1024},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3564,"children":3565},{},[3566],{"type":36,"value":3567},"Imagine a woman named Mary who knows everything there is to know about the physical nature of color. Despite her knowledge, she has never experienced color herself. When she finally sees red for the first time, she gains new knowledge and experiences something new which is not contained in all the set of information that there are in the physical model of colors. This argument suggests two things. First that experience is pre-reflexive and comes before. And then that knowledge of physical processes alone cannot explain the subjective experience of consciousness, and that there is more to it than just physical information. When applied to artificial intelligence, Maryâs room argument raises questions about the limits of language-based models and their ability to truly understand the world. It implies that simply having a large amount of data and the ability to process it is not enough for a machine to experience consciousness or to truly understand the concepts it uses. This argument supports the view that AI can never truly understand the world in the same way humans do, and that there is more to consciousness than what can be explained by physical processes and data.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3569,"children":3570},{},[3571],{"type":36,"value":3572},"With this thought experiment we directly touch on something fundamental. The quality of our subjectivity which is more than the sum of the information contained in our knowledge and is about our experience. The concept of qualia refers to
32subjective, first-person experiences of sensory phenomena. This encompasses everything from the taste of chocolate to the feeling of being in love. The idea is that these experiences are irreducible and cannot be fully captured by any scientific or mathematical description. This leads to the notion that there is something fundamentally different between the subjective experience of qualia and the objective description of the world.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3574,"children":3575},{},[3576],{"type":36,"value":3577},"One of the main arguments against the possibility of in silico models (such as AI systems) having qualia is based on the idea that these models are based on algorithms and mathematical representations of the world. These algorithms and mathematical representations, while they can provide a very detailed and accurate description of the world, do not provide the kind of subjective experience that is central to the concept of qualia.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3579,"children":3580},{},[3581],{"type":36,"value":3582},"Moreover, some philosophers and neuroscientists have argued that the subjective experience is intimately tied to the biological structures and processes that give rise to consciousness (Anderson et al., 2004; Shallice, 1988). The concept of embodiment (Gibbs, 2005) is central to our understanding of the relationship between consciousness and the physical world. It is the idea that our experience and consciousness are not just the result of abstract processes in the brain, but are inherently linked to the physical body that contains and shapes these processes. The body provides a sensory interface through which we interact with the world and it acts as a filter and mediator of our experience. Our consciousness is not just an abstract representation of the world, but it is also a product of the way our body experiences the world. And even more so, consciousness could be no more than our embedded experience of the world.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3584,"children":3585},{},[3586],{"type":36,"value":3587},"On the contrary, the idea of a digital conscious AI, or the idea of transposing our consciousness into a digital universe, implies an absolutely radical dualism. It suggests that consciousness and the physical body can be completely separated, that our subjective experience can be reduced to algorithms and data structures. However, this view runs counter to the central idea of embodiment, which holds that our subjective experience is an embodied experience that is shaped and filtered by our physical body. In conclusion, the concept of embodiment suggests that our experience and consciousness are inherently linked to our body and that the idea of a digital conscious AI or transitioning consciousness into a digital universe, as it is presented in the short story sci-fi masterpiece âlearning to be meâ by Greg Egan, is incompatible with this idea. The subjective nature of qualia also makes it difficult to imagine how it could be modeled in-silico.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3589,"children":3591},{"id":3590},"iii-language-and-knowledge",[3592],{"type":36,"value":3593},"III. Language and knowledge",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3595,"children":3596},{},[3597],{"type":31,"tag":2326,"props":3598,"children":3601},{"alt":3599,"src":3600},"chinese's room experiment","\u002Fimages\u002Fchinese-room.jpeg",[],{"type":31,"tag":3473,"props":3603,"children":3604},{},[3605],{"type":31,"tag":3477,"props":3606,"children":3607},{},[3608],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":3609,"children":3610},{},[3611,3613,3619],{"type":36,"value":3612},"Figure 3 : The Chinese roomâs argument for language manipulation (credit : ",{"type":31,"tag":3556,"props":3614,"children":3616},{"href":3615},"https:\u002F\u002Fmedium.com\u002F@transphilosophr\u002Fsearles-chinese-room-thought-experiment-a-twist-c7eb28f65e6c",[3617],{"type":36,"value":3618},"medium.com\u002F@transphilosophr",{"type":36,"value":1024},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3621,"children":3622},{},[3623],{"type":36,"value":3624},"The Chinese Room argument, put forward by philosopher John Searle, is a thought experiment that challenges the idea of true artificial intelligence. It asserts that a machine, even one that can perform well on language tasks, does not truly understand language or have conscious thoughts and experiences. The experiment imagines a person in a room, who does not speak Chinese, receiving Chinese characters through a slot in the door and providing responses to questions based solely on rules provided by a book. The argument suggests that while the person in the room may be able to answer questions correctly, they do not understand the meaning of the language or the context in which it is used. It suggests that simply being able to process language does not equate to having a true understanding of language or the world. This challenges the view that AI can achieve true consciousness and understanding through purely computational processes and highlights the need for a deeper investigation into the nature of consciousness and intelligence.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3626,"children":3627},{},[3628],{"type":36,"value":3629}
32,"The idea that knowledge can be reduced to language (Bakhtin, 1929; Barthes, 1953; Chomsky, 1965; Derrida, 1978; Eco, 1973; Wittgenstein, 1922) and that artificial intelligence (AI) can be created by manipulating symbols according to logical rules has been a dominant theme in philosophy and science. However, this view is limited by the fact that language is a low-bandwidth method of transmitting information and is often ambiguous, relying on non-linguistic understanding for clear communication. Meanwhile, recent advancements in language models, such as pre-trained language models (LLMs), have shown that language is inherently contextual and that the meaning of words and sentences is heavily influenced by the context in which they appear. However, given the limitations and difficulties of capturing the nuanced and context-sensitive nature of language and human understanding in models, some argue that the structural capture of language by vectorised models could, by itself, make an AI become self-aware as it is presented in the famous movie Her where the OS Samantha go towards the singularity.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3631,"children":3632},{},[3633],{"type":36,"value":3634},"The idea that knowledge is simply linguistic, and can be reduced to a collection of true propositions connected by logical rules, has a long history in philosophy and science. This view was influential in the development of Symbolic AI in the 20th century, where the focus was on manipulating symbols according to logical rules to produce intelligent behavior. In such a configuration it would be considered that knowing something simply means thinking the right sentence and grasping how it connects to other sentences in a big web of all the true claims we know. The ideal form of language, by this logic, would be a purely formal, logical-mathematical one composed of arbitrary symbols connected by strict rules of inference, but natural language could serve as well if you took the extra effort to clear up ambiguities and imprecisions. As Wittgenstein put it, âThe totality of true propositions is the whole of natural science.â This position was so established in the 20th century that psychological findings of cognitive maps (Tolman, 1948) and mental images were controversial, with many arguing that, despite appearances, these must be linguistic at base.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3636,"children":3637},{},[3638],{"type":36,"value":3639},"In the latter half of the 20th century, this view began to be challenged as new findings in cognitive science and neuroscience highlighted that humans process information and make decisions through unconscious and embodied processes (Andler, 1994; Varela et al., 1992), such as perception, emotion, and motor control. It became clear that human intelligence is not reducible to a series of formal symbols or a set of rules, but rather is embodied in the physical and biological processes that make up the human organism (Varela et al., 1992). The idea that an AIâs knowledge consists solely of a database of true sentences connected by logical rules is now widely considered to be a narrow and limited view of intelligence. Research has shown that humans have a rich and complex internal representation of the world, which includes cognitive maps and mental images, and that this representation is not reducible to language alone. This has led to the development of alternative approaches to AI, such as connectionist and embodied AI, which seek to model not just the symbolic processing of language, but also the sensory and motor experiences that give rise to knowledge and intelligence in the first place.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3641,"children":3642},{},[3643],{"type":36,"value":3644},"The idea that an AI system can be considered intelligent if it manipulates symbols in the appropriate way, as proposed by the Turing test, is also coming under increasing scrutiny. While the ability to manipulate symbols is an important component of intelligence, it is not the only one, and does not capture the full richness and complexity of human experience. As Chomsky and his followers have argued for many years, language is not an effective and unambiguou
32s means of communication. A significant portion of our knowledge is in fact nonlinguistic. This understanding is based on the observation that humans do not require a perfect means of communication to effectively understand each other (Christiansen, 2021). Our understanding of a sentence is often dependent on the context in which it is used, allowing us to make inferences about its meaning. This is evident in everyday conversations, where we often use contextual cues such as body language, tone of voice, and shared experiences to deepen our understanding of what is being communicated. The same holds true when reading a text, as comprehension depends on a deeper understanding of the topic being discussed, rather than solely relying on context-free reading strategies.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3646,"children":3647},{},[3648],{"type":36,"value":3649},"Itâs interesting to note that humans acquire a lot of knowledge from nonlinguistic sources, such as direct exploration of the world, observation of the structures of artifacts, and participation in social customs and rituals. This type of knowledge often consists of nuanced patterns of information that are difficult to express in language, but are still accessible to us. For example, by exploring the world (Gopnik & Schulz, 2004), we learn about the behavior of objects and people, and the structures of artifacts and the environment convey information to us intuitively. Mental simulation (Constantinescu et al., 2016; OâKeefe & Dostrovsky, 1971) is another nonlinguistic way in which humans plan out scenarios and develop their skills, which can be used in crafting and reverse-engineering artifacts. Moreover, cultural knowledge is often passed on through precise movements and iconic representations (Descola, 2021), which are difficult to express in language but are still accessible to others.",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":3651,"children":3652},{},[3653],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3654,"children":3655},{},[3656],{"type":36,"value":3657},"âLarge Language Models (LLMs) are a bit like mirrors : it gives the illusion of depth and can reflect almost anything, but it is only a centimeter thick. If we try to explore its depths, we bump our heads â - Yann Lecun",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3659,"children":3660},{},[3661],{"type":36,"value":3662},"As pointed out by Yann Lecun and Jacob Browning in their article âAI and the limits of languageâ, all of this explains why a machine trained on language can know so much and yet so little. It is acquiring a small part of human knowledge through a tiny bottleneck. To capture language is only to capture the set of rules for manipulating the set of symbols that refer to the world in an incomplete way. It is thus a bit akin to a mirror: âit gives the illusion of depth and can reflect almost anything, but it is only a centimeter thick. If we try to explore its depths, we bump our headsâ. The analogy of a mirror is apt in this case, as it provides a superficial reflection of reality, but it does not capture the essence of what it reflects. Similarly, a machine trained on language can understand the words and phrases it has been exposed to, but it lacks the context and understanding that comes from a lifetime of experience and exposure to the world. This is why AI researchers are now focused on developing systems that can understand the world being discussed, rather than just the words themselves. The issue with LLMs is that they are limited to linguistic information, and there is no way to gain a deep understanding of the world solely through language. This highlights the limitations of language-based models and the need for AI systems to have a more comprehensive understanding of the world beyond just words. This, in turn, requires researchers to shift their focus away from language-based knowledge and towards embodied experience and world-knowledge.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3664,"children":3666},{"id":3665},"iv-intuition-and-knowledge",[3667],{"type":36,"value":3668},"IV. Intuition and knowledge",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3670,"children":3671},{},[3672],{"type":31,"tag":2326,"props":3673,"children":3676}
32,{"alt":3674,"src":3675},"Godel's proposition","\u002Fimages\u002Fgobel_prop.jpg",[],{"type":31,"tag":3473,"props":3678,"children":3679},{},[3680],{"type":31,"tag":3477,"props":3681,"children":3682},{},[3683],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":3684,"children":3685},{},[3686,3688,3694],{"type":36,"value":3687},"Figure 4 : Illustration of the Godelâs incompleteness theorem (credit : ",{"type":31,"tag":3556,"props":3689,"children":3691},{"href":3690},"http:\u002F\u002Fabyss.uoregon.edu\u002F~js\u002F21st_century_science\u002Flectures\u002Flec08.html",[3692],{"type":36,"value":3693},"abyss.uoregon.edu",{"type":36,"value":1024},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3696,"children":3697},{},[3698],{"type":36,"value":3699},"The Penrose-Lucas argument is a philosophical stance that suggests that human minds cannot be fully replicated in a machine. This argument is based on the combination of Kurt Gödelâs incompleteness theorems, Roger Penroseâs objections to computationalism, and John Lucasâs critique of artificial intelligence. Godelâs incompleteness theorem states that any system of axioms powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of whole numbers is inherently incomplete, meaning that there will always be true statements about the natural numbers that cannot be proven within the system. This theorem has important implications for our understanding of the limitations of formal systems, including computers and artificial intelligence.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3701,"children":3702},{},[3703],{"type":36,"value":3704},"In the context of AI, the incompleteness theorem highlights the difference between the kind of knowledge that can be captured by a formal system and the kind of knowledge that the human mind possesses. Penrose and Lucas highlight that the human mind is not a formal system, and our understanding of the world goes beyond what can be captured by any set of rules or algorithms. Our ability to think, reason, and make judgments is based on a rich tapestry of experiences, emotions, and intuition, which cannot be reduced to a set of formal rules. Therefore, it is not possible to create an AI system that is capable of fully replicating the human mind, since the human mind is not Turing-complete. Godelâs incompleteness theorem shows us that there will always be aspects of human understanding that cannot be captured by a formal system, and that there will always be limits to what AI can achieve.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3706,"children":3707},{},[3708],{"type":36,"value":3709},"To truly create AI systems that can match or surpass human intelligence and look for AGI, researchers insist on the importance of incorporating human values, ethics, and intuition into the development of AI systems, to ensure that they are aligned with human interests and serve our well-being. Researchers must find ways to embody AI with sensory and motor experiences, and to develop models that can capture the full range of human cognition, from perception and action to reason and introspection as we assist to a paradigm shift in Cognitive AI with the development of human like common sense(Zhu et al., 2020).",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3711,"children":3712},{},[3713],{"type":36,"value":3714},"Consider the phrase âThe falling rock smashed the bottleâ. To understand this sentence, you have to know what a rock is and what it means for something to fall. But to understand what a rock is, you have to know what an object is. To grasp what falling is, you have to understand motion and space. And to understand the relationship between falling and smashing, you have to understand causality. As it was demonstrated by Kan(Kant, 1781; Strawson & Allais, 2018), indeed, an understanding of objects, motion, space, and causality is a prerequisite for understanding any aspect of the everyday world, not just falling and rocks. Unfortunately, this foundational layer of common sense, which is a prerequisite for human-level intelligence, is lacking in todayâs AI systems.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3716,"children":3717},{},[3718],{"type":36,"value":3719},"One way to approach embodied Artificial Intelligence is to explore the possibility of developing unsupervised action-based world models (Zhu et al., 2020). The idea is to replicate the way humans develop a model of the world through experiencing it. The way humans experience the world is rooted in their bodies, and the movements, actions and sensations they encounter. One approach to embodied AI is to build robots or other physical systems that can interact with the world in a similar way to humans, or animals in general (Shanahan et al., 2020), by having sensors and actuators to perceive and act in the environment. These systems can then be trained using unsupervised learning methods, where they learn from the raw sensory data they receive and the actions they take in response, without being explicitly programmed with any particular task or goal. In this way, embodied AI systems can develop their own understanding of the world, and develop their own way of performing tasks that are relevant to the environment they are in. This is in contrast to traditional AI systems that are trained on pre-existing data and are not able to interact with the world in a dynamic way.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3721,"children":3722},{},[3723],{"type":36,"value":3724},"The idea of in silico consciousness emerging from embodied AI is based on the hypothesis of emergence (Edelman & Tononi, 2008; Watanabe et al., 2011), which suggests that complex systems can exhibit novel properties that cannot be predicted from the properties of their individual components. According to this view, consciousness could emerge as a result of the interactions between various components in an embodied AI system, such as sensors, actuators, and algorithms. The lack of intuitive understanding of the physical world, efficient learning, transfer learning, imagination and planning, among other things, all contribute to the limitations of an unsupervised world action-based model from which could emerge a general intelligence. But ultimately, the pursuit of creating consciousness in AI may serve less as a goal in itself than as a tool for better understanding the human brain and its workings (Hassabis et al., 2017; Khaligh-Razavi & Kriegeskorte, 2014). Through the process of distilling intelligence into an algorithmic construct and comparing it to the human brain, we may gain insights into some of the most profound mysteries of the mind such as creativity, dreams, and perhaps one day, even consciousness.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3726,"children":3727},{"id":2661},[3728],{"type":36,"value":2664},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3730,"children":3731},{},[3732],{"type":36,"value":3733},"In conclusion, the journey to understand the emergence of sentience in machines is an ongoing and complex task. It is evident that language-based models such as LLMs have limitations in grasping the nuances of human knowledge and understanding of the world. The Godelâs incompleteness theorem highlights the limitations of formal systems, including machines, in capturing the entirety of mathematical truth or knowledge in general. Similarly, the inability of LLMs to simulate non-linguistic mental simulation, social customs, and physical world knowledge presents a major gap in their capacity to truly understand the world. These limitations make it apparent that AI systems that strive to achieve true sentience must go beyond the acquisition of language and knowledge through a narrow bottleneck. Instead, they must focus on developing a deep understanding of the world through physical and social experiences, just as humans do. The task at hand for AI, neuroscientists, psychologues and cognitive science researchers is to find ways to bridge these gaps in understanding and pave the way for machines to truly comprehend the world through understanding better and modeling the sense of self, introspection, meta cognition, intuition or imagination.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":3735,"children":3736},{"id":2184}
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32,"GANASCIA, J.-G. (2017). Le mythe de la Singularité, Faut-il craindre lâintelligence artificielleâ¯? ÃDITIONS DU SEUIL.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3989,"children":3990},{},[3991],{"type":36,"value":3992},"Gibbs, R. W. (2005). Embodiment and Cognitive Science. Cambridge University Press.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":3994,"children":3995},{},[3996,3998],{"type":36,"value":3997},"Gopnik, A., & Schulz, L. (2004). Mechanisms of theory formation in young children. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(8), 371â377. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":3999,"children":4002},{"href":4000,"rel":4001},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.tics.2004.06.005",[2205],[4003],{"type":36,"value":4000},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4005,"children":4006},{},[4007,4009],{"type":36,"value":4008},"Hassabis, D., Kumaran, D., Summerfield, C., & Botvinick, M. (2017). Neuroscience-Inspired Artificial Intelligence. Neuron, 95(2), 245â258. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4010,"children":4013},{"href":4011,"rel":4012},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.neuron.2017.06.011",[2205],[4014],{"type":36,"value":4011},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4016,"children":4017},{},[4018,4020],{"type":36,"value":4019},"Ivanova, A. A., & Mahowald, K. (2022, juin 24). Googleâs powerful AI spotlights a human cognitive glitchâ¯: Mistaking fluent speech for fluent thought. The Conversation. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4021,"children":4024},{"href":4022,"rel":4023},"http:\u002F\u002Ftheconversation.com\u002Fgoogles-powerful-ai-spotlights-a-human-cognitive-glitch-mistaking-fluent-speech-for-fluent-thought-185099",[2205],[4025],{"type":36,"value":4022},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4027,"children":4028},{},[4029,4031],{"type":36,"value":4030},"Jonas, E., & Kording, K. P. (2017). Could a Neuroscientist Understand a Microprocessor? PLOS Computational Biology, 13(1), e1005268. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4032,"children":4035},{"href":4033,"rel":4034},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1371\u002Fjournal.pcbi.1005268",[2205],[4036],{"type":36,"value":4033},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4038,"children":4039},{},[4040],{"type":36,"value":4041},"Kant, E. (1781). Critics of Pure Reason.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4043,"children":4044},{},[4045,4047],{"type":36,"value":4046},"Khaligh-Razavi, S.-M., & Kriegeskorte, N. (2014). Deep Supervised, but Not Unsupervised, Models May Explain IT Cortical Representation. PLoS Computational Biology, 10(11), e1003915. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4048,"children":4051},{"href":4049,"rel":4050},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1371\u002Fjournal.pcbi.1003915",[2205],[4052],{"type":36,"value":4049},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4054,"children":4055},{},[4056,4058],{"type":36,"value":4057},"Le Blanc, B., & Claverie, B. (2016a). Entre sensation et cognitionâ¯: Lâillusion explicative. Hermès, La Revue, 74(1), 66â70. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4059,"children":4062},{"href":4060,"rel":4061},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3917\u002Fherm.074.0066",[2205],[4063],{"type":36,"value":4060},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4065,"children":4066},{},[4067,4069],{"type":36,"value":4068},"Le Blanc, B., & Claverie, B. (2016b). La perspective artificielle des sens. Hermès, La Revue, 74(1), 183â187. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4070,"children":4073},{"href":4071,"rel":4072},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3917\u002Fherm.074.0183",[2205],[4074],{"type":36,"value":4071},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4076,"children":4077},{},[4078],{"type":36,"value":4079},"Levesque, H. J. (s. d.). The Winograd Schema Challenge.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4081,"children":4082},{},[4083,4085],{"type":36,"value":4084},"Marcus, G. (2022, mars 10). Deep Learning Is Hitting a Wall. Nautilus. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4086,"children":4089},{"href":4087,"rel":4088},"https:\u002F\u002Fnautil.us\u002Fdeep-learning-is-hitting-a-wall-238440\u002F",[2205],[4090],{"type":36,"value":4087},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4092,"children":4093},{},[4094,4096],{"type":36,"value":4095},"Millière, R. (2022, juillet 2). Moving Beyond Mimicry in Artificial Intelligence. Nautilus. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4097,"children":4100},{"href":4098,"rel":4099},"https:\u002F\u002Fnautil.us\u002Fmoving-beyond-mimicry-in-artificial-intelligence-238504\u002F",[2205],[4101],{"type":36,"value":4098},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4103,"children":4104},{},[4105,4107],{"type":36,"value":4106},"Moyer, E. (2018, mars 7). Yes, Alexa is suddenly letting out evil cackles for no reason. CNET. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4108,"children":4111},{"href":4109,"rel":4110},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.cnet.com\u002Fhome\u002Fsmart-home\u002Fyes-amazon-alexa-is-randomly-laughing-for-no-reason\u002F",[2205],[4112],{"type":36,"value":4109},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4114,"children":4115},{},[4116,4118],{"type":36,"value":4117}
32,"Neo, L. B.-L., CEDS, Casper. (2021, décembre 15). Anthropomorphizing the Algorithmâ¯: Animism in the Age of AI. ACEDS. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4119,"children":4122},{"href":4120,"rel":4121},"https:\u002F\u002Faceds.org\u002Fanthropomorphizing-the-algorithm-animism-in-the-age-of-ai\u002F",[2205],[4123],{"type":36,"value":4120},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4125,"children":4126},{},[4127,4129],{"type":36,"value":4128},"Nguyen, B. (s. d.). Suspended Google engineer says the AI he believes to be sentient hired a lawyer. Business Insider. Consulté 4 février 2023, à lâadresse ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4130,"children":4133},{"href":4131,"rel":4132},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.businessinsider.com\u002Fsuspended-google-engineer-says-sentient-ai-hired-lawyer-2022-6",[2205],[4134],{"type":36,"value":4131},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4136,"children":4137},{},[4138,4140],{"type":36,"value":4139},"Pathways Language Model (PaLM)â¯: Scaling to 540 Billion Parameters for Breakthrough Performance. (2022, avril 4). ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4141,"children":4144},{"href":4142,"rel":4143},"https:\u002F\u002Fai.googleblog.com\u002F2022\u002F04\u002Fpathways-language-model-palm-scaling-to.html",[2205],[4145],{"type":36,"value":4142},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4147,"children":4148},{},[4149,4151],{"type":36,"value":4150},"Reboul, A. (2015). Why language really is not a communication systemâ¯: A cognitive view of language evolution. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4152,"children":4155},{"href":4153,"rel":4154},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.frontiersin.org\u002Farticles\u002F10.3389\u002Ffpsyg.2015.01434",[2205],[4156],{"type":36,"value":4153},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4158,"children":4159},{},[4160,4162,4168],{"type":36,"value":4161},"Roberts, W. A. (s. d.). Mental Time Travelâ¯: Animals Anticipate the Future. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4163,"children":4166},{"href":4164,"rel":4165},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002FDOI",[2205],[4167],{"type":36,"value":4164},{"type":36,"value":4169},": 10.1016\u002Fj.cub.2007.04.010",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4171,"children":4172},{},[4173],{"type":36,"value":4174},"Shallice, T. (1988). From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure. Cambridge University Press.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4176,"children":4177},{},[4178,4180],{"type":36,"value":4179},"Shanahan, M., Crosby, M., Beyret, B., & Cheke, L. (2020). Artificial Intelligence and the Common Sense of Animals. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 24(11), 862â872. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4181,"children":4184},{"href":4182,"rel":4183},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.tics.2020.09.002",[2205],[4185],{"type":36,"value":4182},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4187,"children":4188},{},[4189,4191],{"type":36,"value":4190},"Smith, B. C. (s. d.). Whatâs Still Lacking in Artificial Intelligence. Scientific American Blog Network. Consulté 4 février 2023, à lâadresse ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4192,"children":4195},{"href":4193,"rel":4194},"https:\u002F\u002Fblogs.scientificamerican.com\u002Fobservations\u002Fwhats-still-lacking-in-artificial-intelligence\u002F",[2205],[4196],{"type":36,"value":4193},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4198,"children":4199},{},[4200,4202,4207,4209,4215,4216],{"type":36,"value":4201},"Stephen T Asma, A. (2020, mars 8). Our growing intimacy with machines is rooted in the ancient practice of animism ",{"type":31,"tag":772,"props":4203,"children":4204},{},[4205],{"type":36,"value":4206},"Text",{"type":36,"value":4208},". Scroll.In; ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4210,"children":4213},{"href":4211,"rel":4212},"https:\u002F\u002Fscroll.in",[2205],[4214],{"type":36,"value":4211},{"type":36,"value":2199},{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4217,"children":4220},{"href":4218,"rel":4219},"https:\u002F\u002Fscroll.in\u002Farticle\u002F954824\u002Four-growing-intimacy-with-machines-is-rooted-in-the-ancient-practice-of-animism",[2205],[4221],{"type":36,"value":4218},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4223,"children":4224},{},[4225,4227],{"type":36,"value":4226},"Strawson, P., & Allais, L. (2018). The Bounds of Senseâ¯: An Essay on Kantâs Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4228,"children":423
321},{"href":4229,"rel":4230},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.4324\u002F9780429447075",[2205],[4232],{"type":36,"value":4229},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4234,"children":4235},{},[4236,4238],{"type":36,"value":4237},"The Evolved Apprentice «â¯On the Human. (s. d.). Consulté 4 février 2023, à lâadresse ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4239,"children":4242},{"href":4240,"rel":4241},"https:\u002F\u002Fnationalhumanitiescenter.org\u002Fon-the-human\u002F2010\u002F08\u002Fthe-evolved-apprentice\u002F",[2205],[4243],{"type":36,"value":4240},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4245,"children":4246},{},[4247,4249],{"type":36,"value":4248},"Turing, A. M. (2009). Computing Machinery and Intelligence. In R. Epstein, G. Roberts, & G. Beber (Ãds.), Parsing the Turing Test (p. 23â65). Springer Netherlands. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4250,"children":4253},{"href":4251,"rel":4252},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1007\u002F978-1-4020-6710-5_3",[2205],[4254],{"type":36,"value":4251},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4256,"children":4257},{},[4258,4260],{"type":36,"value":4259},"Tye, M. (2000). The Imagery Debate. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4261,"children":4264},{"href":4262,"rel":4263},"https:\u002F\u002Fmitpress.mit.edu\u002F9780262700733\u002Fthe-imagery-debate\u002F",[2205],[4265],{"type":36,"value":4262},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4267,"children":4268},{},[4269],{"type":36,"value":4270},"Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. T., & Rosch, E. (1992). The Embodied Mindâ¯: Cognitive Science and Human Experience (Revised ed. edition). The MIT Press.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4272,"children":4273},{},[4274,4276],{"type":36,"value":4275},"Waal, F. de. (2016, avril 8). Opinion | What I Learned From Tickling Apes. The New York Times. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4277,"children":4280},{"href":4278,"rel":4279},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nytimes.com\u002F2016\u002F04\u002F10\u002Fopinion\u002Fsunday\u002Fwhat-i-learned-from-tickling-apes.html",[2205],[4281],{"type":36,"value":4278},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4283,"children":4284},{},[4285,4287],{"type":36,"value":4286},"Wexler, N. (s. d.). Why Weâre Teaching Reading Comprehension In A Way That Doesnât Work. Forbes. Consulté 4 février 2023, à lâadresse ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4288,"children":4291},{"href":4289,"rel":4290},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.forbes.com\u002Fsites\u002Fnataliewexler\u002F2019\u002F01\u002F23\u002Fwhy-were-teaching-reading-comprehe
32nsion-in-a-way-that-doesnt-work\u002F",[2205],[4292],{"type":36,"value":4289},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4294,"children":4295},{},[4296],{"type":36,"value":4297},"Wittgenstein, L. (1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4299,"children":4300},{},[4301,4303],{"type":36,"value":4302},"Zhu, Y., Gao, T., Fan, L., Huang, S., Edmonds, M., Liu, H., Gao, F., Zhang, C., Qi, S., Wu, Y. N., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Zhu, S.-C. (2020). Dark, Beyond Deepâ¯: A Paradigm Shift to Cognitive AI with Humanlike Common Sense. Engineering, 6(3), 310â345. ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4304,"children":4307},{"href":4305,"rel":4306},"https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.eng.2020.01.011",[2205],[4308],{"type":36,"value":4305},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4310,"children":4311},{},[4312,4314],{"type":36,"value":4313},"The original post includes a comprehensive references list. See the archived original for full citations: ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4315,"children":4317},{"href":3454,"rel":4316},[2205],[4318],{"type":36,"value":3454},{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":4320},[4321,4322,4323,4324,4325,4326],{"id":3506,"depth":673,"text":3509},{"id":3532,"depth":673,"text":3535},{"id":3590,"depth":673,"text":3593},{"id":3665,"depth":673,"text":3668},{"id":2661,"depth":673,"text":2664},{"id":2184,"depth":673,"text":2187},"content:blog:from-homo-sapiens-to-homo-silicus.md","blog\u002Ffrom-homo-sapiens-to-homo-silicus.md","blog\u002Ffrom-homo-sapiens-to-homo-silicus",{"loc":3442},{"_path":4332,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":4333,"description":4334,"subtitle":4335,"date":4336,"authors":15,"tags":4337,"section":2307,"contentStyle":4341,"draft":8,"body":4342,"_type":682,"_id":4380,"_source":684,"_file":4381,"_stem":4382,"_extension":687,"sitemap":4383},"\u002Fblog\u002Fgenealogie","Psychohenealogie","(1) Proust, du côté de chez Swann. \"un édifice occupant, si lâon peut dire, un espace à quatre dimensions â la quatrième étant celle du Temps â déployant à travers les siècles son vaisseau qui, de travée en travée, de chapelle en chapelle, semblait vaincre et franchir, non pas seulement quelques mètres, mais des époques successives dâoù il sortait victorieux\"","Réflexions sur la nature de la genealogie comme un systeme dynamique","2020-05-05",[4338,4339,4340],"Genealogie","science cognitive","réflexion personnelle","expose",{"type":28,"children":4343,"toc":4378},[4344,4348,4353,4358,4363,4368,4373],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4345,"children":4346},{},[4347],{"type":36,"value":4334},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4349,"children":4350},{},[4351],{"type":36,"value":4352},"Pourquoi la psychogenealogie fonctionne ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4354,"children":4355},{},[4356],{"type":36,"value":4357},"Parce qu'une structure familiale fonctionne comme un cerveau, c'est un réseau interconnecté qui répond au principe d'autonomie (loi propre, génération, régulation interne, conatus, affirmation de sa propre identité) à un niveau transgenerationnel, il faut imaginer la structure familiale comme un vaisseau (1)qui traverse le temps comme un objet traverse l'espace, comme un être vivant désir quelque chose. Ce désir, inconscient, il nait de ce manque, de cette complémentarité qui se résorbe de génération en génération (quand tout va bien) par la quête de l'être aimé (une liaison d'amour créer de la cohésion. Et d'ailleurs ne dit on pas qu'il y a quelque chose de l'ordre de la complémentarité inconsciente dans l'amour (lacan).)\nEt donc, cette structure se définit par l'interconnexion de ses parties. Interconnexion qui se manifeste par la complémentarité des caractères, des vices, des façons de voir le monde, et par le jeu d'equilibriste que joue la marche des générations (opposition, intégration, dépassement). Dans cette structure il peut y avoir problème. Quand une personne est occultée, mis à l'écart d'une manière ou d'une autre, du système, alors il arrive souvent que les personnes les plus sensibles prennent inconsciemment la place de ceux qui ne sont plus là . Par exemple, c'est fréquemment que lorsqu'un parent à coupé les liens avec son père ou sa mère, que l'enfant de ce même parent se retrouve inconsciemment à reproduire certaines façons d'être du grand parent.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4359,"children":4360},{},[4361],{"type":36,"value":4362},"Cela est très logique et nous pouvons facilement l'intuitionner en s'arrêtant deux secondes sur le fonctionnement des plantes. Comme elles, nous sommes soumis aux même lois de l'univers. Nous pouvons aussi comprendre cela par l'analogie avec la plasticité cérébrale. Le cerveau et la plante sont organisé en réseau de ramification, tout comme nos pensées. Lorsqu'un noeud ou une branche de l'arbre est occulté. Mais que le système dans son ensemble a lui besoin de persévérer dans son être. La fonction orchestrée par la partie du système qui n'est plus dans le système finie, d'une manière plus ou moins efficace et plus ou moins cohérente, à être orchestrée par les parties nouvelles, par les nouvelles cellules, les nouvelles branches en train de pousser.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4364,"children":4365},{},[4366],{"type":36,"value":4367},"--- English version (translated using Claude Sonnet 4.6)",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4369,"children":4370},{},[4371],{"type":36,"value":4372},"(1) Proust, Swann's Way. \"a structure occupying, if one may say so, a four-dimensional space â the fourth being that of Time â unfolding across the centuries its nave which, from bay to bay, from chapel to chapel, seemed to overcome and traverse not merely a few metres, but successive epochs from which it emerged victorious.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4374,"children":4375},{},[4376],{"type":36,"value":4377},"Why does psychogenealogy work?\nBecause a family structure functions like a brain â it is an interconnected network governed by the principle of autonomy (its own law, generation, internal regulation, conatus, the affirmation of its own identity) at a transgenerational level. One must imagine the family structure as a vessel (1) that crosses time the way an object crosses space, the way a living being desires something. This desire, unconscious, is born of a lack, of a complementarity that resolves itself from generation to generation (when things go well) through the search for the beloved â a bond of love creates cohesion. And indeed, is it not said that there is something of the order of unconscious complementarity in love (Lacan)?\nThis structure is therefore defined by the interconnection of its parts â an interconnection that manifests through the complementarity of characters, of vices, of ways of seeing the world, and through the balancing act performed by the march of generations (opposition, integration, transcendence). Within this structure, problems can arise. When a person is concealed or excluded in one way or another from the system, it frequently happens that the most sensitive individuals unconsciously take the place of those who are no longer there. For instance, it is common that when a parent has severed ties with their own father or mother, that parent's child unconsciously ends up reproducing certain ways of being of the grandparent.\nThis is entirely logical, and we can easily intuit it by pausing for a moment on how plants function. Like them, we are subject to the same laws of the universe. We can also understand this through the analogy of cerebral plasticity. The brain and the plant are both organized as branching networks, just as our thoughts are. When a node or a branch of the tree is occluded â yet the system as a whole still needs to persevere in its being â the function once orchestrated by the part that is no longer in the system ends up, in a more or less effective and more or less coherent way, being taken over by the new parts: the new cells, the new branches growing in its place.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":4379},[],"content:blog:genealogie.md","blog\u002Fgenealogie.md","blog\u002Fgenealogie",{"loc":4332},{"_path":4385,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":4386,"description":9,"subtitle":4387,"date":4388,"authors":4389,"tags":4391,"section":2307,"contentStyle":4341,"draft":8,"body":4397,"_type":682,"_id":5096,"_source":684,"_file":5097,"_stem":5098,"_extension":687,"sitemap":5099},"\u002Fblog\u002Fnestle","Nestlé : un géant mondial de l'agro-alimentaire","Dossier géographique","2020-03-18",[4390,15],"Jeanne Goudinoux",[2301,4392,4393,4394,4395,4396],"mondialisation","agroalimentaire","Nestlé","firme transnationale","développement durable",{"type":28,"children":4398,"toc":5065},[4399,4404,4407,4413,4432,4435,4441,4509,4515,4558,4564,4646,4649,4653,4658,4670,4675,4683,4686,4692,4698,4703,4708,4713,4719,4724,4729,4741,4747,4752,4757,4768,4794,4797,4803,4809,4814,4819,4824,4829,4835,4840,4852,48
3264,4869,4875,4880,4885,4890,4893,4899,4905,4910,4915,4920,4926,4931,4936,4949,4960,4965,4970,4973,4977,4982,4987,4990,4996,5002,5010,5015,5021,5026,5032,5037,5043,5048,5054],{"type":31,"tag":3477,"props":4400,"children":4401},{},[4402],{"type":36,"value":4403},"Travail réalisé dans le cadre de la classe préparatoire B\u002FL aux grandes écoles â KH, lycée Lakanal.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":4405,"children":4406},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4408,"children":4410},{"id":4409},"le-logo-de-nestlé-symbole-dune-firme-transnationale-historique",[4411],{"type":36,"value":4412},"Le logo de Nestlé : symbole d'une firme transnationale historique",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4414,"children":4415},{},[4416,4418,4423,4425,4430],{"type":36,"value":4417},"En allemand ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4419,"children":4420},{},[4421],{"type":36,"value":4422},"Nestle",{"type":36,"value":4424}," signifie « petit nid ». Pour illustrer son caractère sécurisant et bienveillant le groupe suisse a donc naturellement choisi un nid, une branche de chêne et une grive qui nourrit ses deux petits oisillons. C'est sa mission initiale pour la nutrition infantile qui est soulignée. Nestlé y rajoute le slogan « ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4426,"children":4427},{},[4428],{"type":36,"value":4429},"good food, good life",{"type":36,"value":4431}," », littéralement « bonne nourriture, bonne vie » en français, afin de communiquer sur la qualité nutritionnelle de ses produits et de sa participation à la disponibilité alimentaire des populations du monde. Cela illustre sa place centrale dans le circuit alimentaire mondial.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":4433,"children":4434},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4436,"children":4438},{"id":4437},"bibliographie",[4439],{"type":36,"value":4440},"Bibliographie",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":4442,"children":4443},{},[4444,4456,4468,4473,4485,4497],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4445,"children":4446},{},[4447,4449,4454],{"type":36,"value":4448},"Marc Mousli, « Nestlé, un géant mondial, mais suisse », ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4450,"children":4451},{},[4452],{"type":36,"value":4453},"Alternatives économiques",{"type":36,"value":4455},", 2016.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4457,"children":4458},{},[4459,4461,4466],{"type":36,"value":4460},"Jean Ziegler, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4462,"children":4463},{},[4464],{"type":36,"value":4465},"L'empire de la honte",{"type":36,"value":4467},", Fayard, 2005.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4469,"children":4470},{},[4471],{"type":36,"value":4472},"N. Ayadi, J.-L. Rastoin, S. Tozanli, « Les opérations de restructuration des firmes agroalimentaires multinationales entre 1987 et 2003 », 2006.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4474,"children":4475},{},[4476,4478,4483],{"type":36,"value":4477},"Sandra Bott et Susan George, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4479,"children":4480},{},[4481],{"type":36,"value":4482},"ATTAC contre l'Empire Nestlé",{"type":36,"value":4484},", Ãditions ATTAC, 2004.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4486,"children":4487},{},[4488,4490,4495],{"type":36,"value":4489},"Simon Lord, Sylvain Simard, Jean-Luc Valleix, « Nespresso : le goût du monde », ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4491,"children":4492},{},[4493],{"type":36,"value":4494},"Gestion",{"type":36,"value":4496}," 2016\u002F4 (Vol. 41), p. 51-59.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4498,"children":4499},{},[4500,4502,4507],{"type":36,"value":4501},"José Muchnik, Roland Treillon, Colette Fourcade, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4503,"children":4504},{},[4505],{"type":36,"value":4506},"Coopérations, territoires et entreprises agroalimentaires",{"type":36,"value":4508},", 2010.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4510,"children":4512},{"id":4511},"reportages",[4513],{"type":36,"value":4514},"Reportages",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":4516,"children":4517},{},[4518,4528,4538,4548],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4519,"children":4520},{},[4521,4526],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4522,"children":4523},{},[4524],{"type":36,"value":4525},"Industrie agroalimentaire : business contre santé",{"type":36,"value":4527},", Cash Investigation.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4529,"children":4530},{},[4531,4536],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4532,"children":4533},{},[4534],{"type":36,"value":4535},"Nestlé, un géant qui ruine l'économie de l'Afrique",{"type":36,"value":4537}
32,", Judith Rueff.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4539,"children":4540},{},[4541,4546],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4542,"children":4543},{},[4544],{"type":36,"value":4545},"Bottled Life",{"type":36,"value":4547},", Urs Schnell, Res Gehriger.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4549,"children":4550},{},[4551,4556],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4552,"children":4553},{},[4554],{"type":36,"value":4555},"Nestlé : un empire dans mon assiette",{"type":36,"value":4557},", Judith Rueff, France 5.",{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4559,"children":4561},{"id":4560},"webographie",[4562],{"type":36,"value":4563},"Webographie",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":4565,"children":4566},{},[4567,4577,4596,4606,4616,4626,4636],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4568,"children":4569},{},[4570],{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4571,"children":4574},{"href":4572,"rel":4573},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.greenpeace.fr\u002Fnestle-nourrit-les-bebes-chinois-avec-des-ogm\u002F",[2205],[4575],{"type":36,"value":4576},"Greenpeace â Nestlé et les OGM",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4578,"children":4579},{},[4580,4587,4589],{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4581,"children":4584},{"href":4582,"rel":4583},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nestle.fr\u002F",[2205],[4585],{"type":36,"value":4586},"Nestlé France",{"type":36,"value":4588}," · ",{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4590,"children":4593},{"href":4591,"rel":4592},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nestle.com\u002F",[2205],[4594],{"type":36,"value":4595},"Nestlé International",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4597,"children":4598},{},[4599],{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4600,"children":4603},{"href":4601,"rel":4602},"http:\u002F\u002Fmultinationales.org\u002FNestle?lang=fr",[2205],[4604],{"type":36,"value":4605},"Observatoire des Multinationales",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4607,"children":4608},{},[4609],{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4610,"children":4613},{"href":4611,"rel":4612},"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.foodwatch.org\u002Ffr\u002Fs-informer\u002Ftopics\u002Farnaque-sur-l-etiquette\u002Fpetition-maggi-victoire\u002F",[2205],[4614],{"type":36,"value":4615},"FoodWatch â Arnaque sur l'étiquette Maggi",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4617,"children":4618},{},[4619],{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4620,"children":4623},{"href":4621,"rel":4622},"http:\u002F\u002Feconomie.jeuneafrique.com\u002Fregions\u002Fafrique-subsaharienne\u002F12114-nestle-poursuit-sa-conquete-du-continent.html",[2205],[4624],{"type":36,"value":4625},"Nestlé en Afrique â Jeune Afrique",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4627,"children":4628},{},[4629],{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4630,"children":4633},{"href":4631,"rel":4632},"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.nestle.com\u002Fasset-library\u002Fdocuments\u002Freports\u002Fcsv%20reports\u002Fspecific%20regions\u002Fcommitment_africa_2004_french.pdf",[2205],[4634],{"type":36,"value":4635},"Rapport d'engagement de Nestlé sur le continent africain (2004)",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":4637,"children":4638},{},[4639],{"type":31,"tag":2201,"props":4640,"children":4643},{"href":4641,"rel":4642},"http:\u002F\u002Fgeoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr\u002Factualites\u002Fveille\u002Fnestle-documents-sur-une-firme-transnationale",[2205],[4644],{"type":36,"value":4645},"Géoconfluences â Nestlé, documents sur une firme transnationale",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":4647,"children":4648},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4650,"children":4651},{"id":2763},[4652],{"type":36,"value":2766},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4654,"children":4655},{},[4656],{"type":36,"value":4657},"« Ma découverte aura un avenir immense car il n'existe pas d'aliment qui puisse se comparer avec ma farine alimentaire » déclare Henri Nestlé un an seulement après sa création en 1867 de la farine lactée, aliment révolutionnaire pour nourrisson. Son intuition est aujourd'hui confirmée : avec un chiffre d'affaires de 89,8 milliards de CHF en 2016, Nestlé s'est imposé au sein de « l'oligopole agroalimentaire mondial » (N. Ayadi, J.-L. Rastoin, S. Tozanli). Nestlé illustre en cela le processus de mondialisation de l'alimentation ayant lieu au cours du XXáµ siècle, puisqu'elle est aujourd'hui omniprésente au sein des circuits agro-alimentaires mondiaux, et ce à toutes les échelles.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4659,"children":4660},{},[4661,4663,4668],{"type":36,"value":4662},"Bien que Nestlé donne d'elle-même une image lisse et responsable à travers un marketing soigné s'appuyant sur les conceptions culturelles de l'alimentation dans ses pays cibles, les contestations de ses pratiques et les scandales autour de ses produits ont été nombreux. La firme que Jean Ziegler dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4664,"children":4665},{},[4666],{"type":36,"value":4667},"L'Empire de la honte",{"type":36,"value":4669}," surnomme la « pieuvre de Vevey » a en effet un pouvoir tentaculaire qui met en évidence les rapports de force existant entre les firmes agroalimentaires au pouvoir de marché immense, et les consommateurs, les producteurs agricoles, les ONG, etc.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4671,"children":4672},{},[4673],{"type":36,"value":4674},"Ces rapports de force se jouent autour d'enjeux plus globaux interrogeant les conséquences environnementales, sanitaires, socio-économiques liées au système productiviste et à la domination des industries agroalimentaires (IAA). La stratég
32ie de Nestlé la pousse cependant à s'adapter aux évolutions récentes des attentes des mangeurs occidentaux, vers plus de qualité, de transparence et de respect de l'environnement. Il convient donc de s'interroger sur l'évolution de ce rapport de force au vu des confrontations successives de la firme à la société civile et de ses adaptations récentes.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4676,"children":4677},{},[4678],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":4679,"children":4680},{},[4681],{"type":36,"value":4682},"Comment ce leader de l'agroalimentaire investit-il le circuit alimentaire mondial à toutes les échelles et en quoi les dynamiques qu'il enclenche entraînent-elles des défaillances sociales, politiques et économiques qui s'inscrivent dans les territoires et produisent des rapports de force illustrant les enjeux essentiels de l'alimentation ?",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":4684,"children":4685},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4687,"children":4689},{"id":4688},"i-nestlé-et-le-marché-de-lalimentation-la-pieuvre-de-vevey-j-ziegler-au-cÅur-de-loligopole-agroalimentaire-mondial-n-ayadi-j-l-rastoin-s-tozanli",[4690],{"type":36,"value":4691},"I â Nestlé et le marché de l'alimentation : la « pieuvre de Vevey » (J. Ziegler) au cÅur de « l'oligopole agroalimentaire mondial » (N. Ayadi, J.-L. Rastoin, S. Tozanli)",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4693,"children":4695},{"id":4694},"a-limplantation-de-nestlé-dans-le-monde-une-illustration-de-la-domination-des-pays-développés-sur-les-pays-en-développement-dans-la-mondialisation",[4696],{"type":36,"value":4697},"A â L'implantation de Nestlé dans le monde : une illustration de la domination des pays développés sur les pays en développement dans la mondialisation",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4699,"children":4700},{},[4701],{"type":36,"value":4702},"Nestlé est aujourd'hui la plus grande entreprise agroalimentaire du monde et la 17áµ plus grande entreprise par capitalisation boursière (entre Bank of China et Bank of America). Elle possède des dizaines de filiales, investit tous les secteurs de l'agro-alimentaire autant dans la production, la transformation et la distribution et cela dans le monde entier. Nestlé est un acteur spatial d'envergure planétaire et en tant qu'agent économique représente la domination des pays développés sur les pays en développement. La firme vend ses produits dans 189 pays et a aujourd'hui 413 usines présentes dans 85 pays différents. Si historiquement l'Europe de l'Ouest et l'Amérique du Nord représentent les deux principaux marchés où la marque est la plus présente, c'est sur les marchés asiatique et surtout africain qu'elle mise aujourd'hui.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4704,"children":4705},{},[4706],{"type":36,"value":4707},"L'espace international est investi et partagé selon le jeu de l'offre et de la demande : le siège et les différents centres de Recherche et Développement se concentrent dans les pays développés, près des pôles universitaires et des villes afin de bénéficier d'effets d'agglomération ; les usines se développent de plus en plus vers les pays en développement où la main-d'Åuvre est moins chère. Pour autant, à l'heure de la globalisation des marchés et des facteurs de production, la prédominance des modèles de territorialisation régionale empêche la firme de délocaliser toutes ses industries : les activités de production et de transformation sont très attachées à la zone de production en raison de la périssabilité de la matière première (lait), de la minimisation des coûts de transport ou de la préservation de la qualité organoleptique de la matière première (viande, légumes).",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4709,"children":4710},{},[4711],{"type":36,"value":4712},"Du cube Maggi au lait concentré sucré, les produits Nestlé sont déjà bien introduits chez les ménages africains, chinois ou indiens. Mais, à l'époque, une importante proportion de ces produits était importée. Désormais, le groupe affiche son intention de produire localement, aussi bien les matières premières qu'il utilise que les produits finis. Ainsi, en Côte d'Ivoire, le Suisse cherche à « fidéliser » les agriculteurs en leur fournissant des plants de cacao et en leur proposant une formation : plus de 800 000 plants ont déjà été distribués, 6 000 cultivateurs ont été formés. Cette stratég
32ie repose bien entendu sur une volonté de maîtriser les coûts : en s'adressant directement aux cultivateurs, le géant de l'agroalimentaire entend supprimer les intermédiaires et s'affranchir, autant que possible, des cours mondiaux. Reste que, pour les cultivateurs, ce système est susceptible de créer une dépendance auprès d'un client unique et surpuissant. Maîtriser ainsi la chaîne de production c'est contrôler des systèmes alimentaires entiers et structurer les espaces de l'alimentation par le pouvoir économique mais aussi culturel et social.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4714,"children":4716},{"id":4715},"b-les-débuts-de-la-firme-linnovation-comme-moteur",[4717],{"type":36,"value":4718},"B â Les débuts de la firme : l'innovation comme moteur",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4720,"children":4721},{},[4722],{"type":36,"value":4723},"L'histoire de Nestlé commence avec Henri Nestlé, pharmacien, qui développe un produit de substitution au lait maternel, espérant ainsi réduire le taux de mortalité des nourrissons qui ne peuvent être allaités. Bien sûr cette histoire sera érigée au rang de mythe fondateur par la firme de Vevey qui en fera l'expression de sa bienveillance sur le monde alimentaire. En réalité l'entreprise fut séparée de son fondateur dès 1875 et sera dès lors dirigée par des hommes d'affaires.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4725,"children":4726},{},[4727],{"type":36,"value":4728},"C'est cette puissance de financement et la concentration de capitaux suisses et américains qui lui permet de racheter ses concurrents et de faire de l'innovation technique un moteur de développement et de monopole (grâce aux brevets). Avec le lait en poudre, la promotion du café lyophilisé, ou encore les machines à café Nespresso en vente liée avec ses capsules innovantes, Nestlé s'assure l'exclusivité de ces nouvelles façons de consommer. Par ailleurs cette dernière innovation va de pair avec une politique marketing fondée sur la distinction sociale. Consommer du café en capsule Nespresso ou encore de l'eau en bouteille Pure Life au Pakistan c'est avoir les moyens de s'assurer un service alimentaire de qualité. La compagnie suisse occupe une place désirable au sein du circuit alimentaire mondial.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4730,"children":4731},{},[4732,4734,4739],{"type":36,"value":4733},"Autour du café par exemple, la firme a supervisé la constitution d'un réseau de producteurs qui alimente efficacement son système d'approvisionnement en les fidélisant. De l'autre côté elle a fédéré un réseau de consommateurs avec le fameux « ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4735,"children":4736},{},[4737],{"type":36,"value":4738},"What else ?",{"type":36,"value":4740}," » et s'est assurée 22 % des parts de marché mondial. L'implantation du réseau de boutiques Nespresso dans les centres-villes, souvent gentrifiés, des grandes métropoles fait partie d'une stratégie marketing qui lui permet d'assurer une présence systématique au sein d'espaces de consommation élitistes. Avec plus de 600 boutiques dans le monde, le réseau montre une dynamique rare (environ 300 début 2016).",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4742,"children":4744},{"id":4743},"c-stratégie-de-la-firme-fusions-et-rachats-diversification-des-produits-marketing",[4745],{"type":36,"value":4746},"C â Stratégie de la firme : fusions et rachats, diversification des produits, marketing",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4748,"children":4749},{},[4750],{"type":36,"value":4751},"La présence quasi-monopolistique de la firme sur un grand nombre de marchés s'explique par une politique économique féroce appuyée par une puissance financière tentaculaire. Au lendemain de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, la compagnie Nestlé allonge son rayon d'action, met de nouveaux produits sur le marché mais surtout absorbe une série de firmes concurrentes. Le géant suisse fusionne en 1947 avec Alimenta SA, qui fabrique les soupes Maggi, devient l'actionnaire majoritaire de l'entreprise britannique Crosse & Blackwell en 1960, leader sur le marché de l'alimentation en conserve, et absorbe les sociétés Findus et McNeill & Libby en 1962, qui évoluent sur le marché des produits surgelés. Ses acquisitions les plus coûteuses l'ont amené à prendre le contrôle de la société américaine productrice de viande Carnation en 1975, et à procéder au rachat de l'eau minérale gazeuse Perrier en 1992.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4753,"children":4754},{},[4755],{"type":36,"value":4756},"Nestlé est connu au travers de plus d'une centaine de marques de boissons (Nescafé, Nespresso, Ricoré, Nesquik) mais aussi de produits laitiers (La Laitière) ou d'alimentation (Buitoni). La compagnie domine avec Danone le marché des eaux en bouteille grâce à des marques ayant une visibilité planétaire (Vittel, Perrier, Contrex, San Pellegrino, Pure Life). La transformation et la commercialisation des produits ont largement pris le pas sur la seule production agricole, au sein d'une politique plus globale de diversification de ses produits.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4758,"children":4759},{},[4760,4762,4766],{"type":36,"value":4761}
32,"La stratégie de Nestlé se base aussi sur un marketing travaillé. Afin de se promouvoir dans les pays en développement, Nestlé met en avant des produits et des modes de consommation occidentalisées, qui sont liées dans l'imaginaire collectif à un statut social élevé et à une sécurité sanitaire. Ziegler dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4763,"children":4764},{},[4765],{"type":36,"value":4667},{"type":36,"value":4767}," explique ainsi que Nestlé joue de cette vision pour vendre ses produits. Au Cameroun les publicités autour du lait en poudre Nestlé montrent ainsi une femme blanche avec son bébé.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4769,"children":4770},{},[4771,4773,4778,4780,4785,4787,4792],{"type":36,"value":4772},"Globalement, Nestlé est une « ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":4774,"children":4775},{},[4776],{"type":36,"value":4777},"marque-ombrelle",{"type":36,"value":4779}," » (Jean Watin-Augouard) car recettes, packaging et communication sont identiques dans tous les pays, et une « ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":4781,"children":4782},{},[4783],{"type":36,"value":4784},"marque-caution",{"type":36,"value":4786}," » car le consommateur a ainsi la garantie de retrouver le même produit standardisé dans le temps et à travers les territoires. Mais c'est aussi une « ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":4788,"children":4789},{},[4790],{"type":36,"value":4791},"marque-entreprise",{"type":36,"value":4793}," » dont l'image pâtit des scandales et des actes immoraux d'une entreprise qui, selon le modèle de l'économie libérale et du capitalisme, n'hésite pas à ajuster ses effectifs et ses usines au rythme de la conjoncture mondiale.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":4795,"children":4796},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4798,"children":4800},{"id":4799},"ii-une-firme-multinationale-aux-pratiques-contestées-prise-dans-des-rapports-de-force-multiples",[4801],{"type":36,"value":4802},"II â Une firme multinationale aux pratiques contestées, prise dans des rapports de force multiples",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4804,"children":4806},{"id":4805},"a-dans-les-pays-développés-de-multiples-conflits-avec-les-ong-et-les-consommateurs",[4807],{"type":36,"value":4808},"A â Dans les pays développés, de multiples conflits avec les ONG et les consommateurs",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4810,"children":4811},{},[4812],{"type":36,"value":4813},"Les rapports de force entre Nestlé et les autres acteurs de l'alimentation se font selon des problématiques spécifiques aux zones géographiques concernées. Les consommateurs occidentaux sont par exemple de plus en plus soucieux de la qualité et de la traçabilité des produits agro-industriels, ce qui concerne d'autant plus Nestlé que la firme a été impliquée dans le scandale de la fraude à la viande de cheval en 2013, et dans celui de la contamination bactérienne de la pâte à cookie Toll House aux Ãtats-Unis en 2009 ayant provoqué l'intoxication de 69 personnes dont l'une est décédée.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4815,"children":4816},{},[4817],{"type":36,"value":4818},"Plusieurs associations se font ainsi porte-paroles des consommateurs dans les pays occidentaux, à l'image de FoodWatch en France. En 2014, l'ONG découvre des étiquettes mensongères sur des emballages de soupe bÅuf-carottes Maggi : contrairement à l'étiquetage montrant un morceau de viande de bÅuf, le produit ne contient que 1,1 % de jus de cuisson de bÅuf ; et malgré la mention « Saveur à l'ancienne », il contenait plus d'exhausteurs de goût artificiels, de sucre et de sel que de viande ou de légumes. FoodWatch lance alors une pétition en ligne aboutissant à la modification de l'emballage. ONG et consommateurs paraissent donc avoir un certain pouvoir contre les pratiques de la firme.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4820,"children":4821},{},[4822],{"type":36,"value":4823},"Ce rapport de force reste cependant inégal : en tant qu'acteur central du système alimentaire mondial, la firme peut aller jusqu'à tenir tête aux Ãtats grâce au lobbying. En 2016 le lobby de l'agroalimentaire, par le biais de l'ANIA, a réussi à faire échouer un projet d'étiquetage nutritionnel (par des pastilles de couleur) visant à faciliter les choix des consommateurs en France.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4825,"children":4826},{},[4827],{"type":36,"value":4828},"De même, dans la lutte contre la privatisation et la surexploitation de l'eau aux Ãtats-Unis, la société civile a du mal à s'imposer. En 1992, la reprise de Perrier offre à Nestlé le marché américain de l'eau en bouteille, dont sa principale marque est Poland
32Spring, la plus vendue aux Ãtats-Unis. Pour obtenir l'accès aux sources d'eau, Nestlé emploie des stratégies agressives, profitant des législations floues sur la propriété de l'eau. Dans le Maine, celle-ci est considérée comme un bien commun : chacun puise ce qu'il veut en vertu de la loi. Les habitants se sont mobilisés contre la présence de la firme, qui pompe de l'eau dans les nombreuses réserves naturelles de l'Ãtat. Dans les villes de Shapleigh et Newfield les administrations communales ont voté contre les pratiques de Nestlé, tandis qu'à Fryeburg les associations, s'appuyant sur la loi commune, ont perdu. Mais malgré les quelques victoires de la société civile, la firme continue de pomper à faible coût environ 4 milliards de litres par an dans le Maine.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4830,"children":4832},{"id":4831},"b-dans-les-pays-en-développement-une-domination-manifeste-de-la-firme-sur-les-populations",[4833],{"type":36,"value":4834},"B â Dans les pays en développement, une domination manifeste de la firme sur les populations",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4836,"children":4837},{},[4838],{"type":36,"value":4839},"Nestlé est implantée sur le marché de nombreux pays en développement, où elle se place comme un acteur spatial et économique de premier ordre, souvent au détriment des populations pauvres.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4841,"children":4842},{},[4843,4845,4850],{"type":36,"value":4844},"Nestlé Waters a ainsi créé la marque d'eau en bouteille la plus vendue dans le monde, ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":4846,"children":4847},{},[4848],{"type":36,"value":4849},"Pure Life",{"type":36,"value":4851},", destinée aux pays en développement. Le marché test pour son lancement fut le Pakistan, où l'eau potable manque cruellement dans certaines villes aux réseaux d'approvisionnement vétustes : Nestlé s'est ainsi construit un monopole dans le pays, tirant profit de la faiblesse des Ãtats. à Lahore, il n'y avait pas d'eau en bouteille avant Pure Life. Cette eau, devenue signe de distinction sociale, est destinée aux classes moyennes et aisées ayant les moyens de se la procurer, afin de se prémunir contre les multiples maladies qui déciment la population. Cette situation s'oppose à celle de villages pauvres comme le hameau de Bhatti Dilwan, où 200 villageois ont créé une pétition réclamant un accès à l'eau potable, car la fabrique de Sheikhupura de Nestlé a asséché leurs puits, qui doivent maintenant être creusés à des profondeurs inaccessibles pour eux. La firme n'aurait pas répondu à cette pétition. La marchandisation de l'eau provoquée par Nestlé menace donc la subsistance des populations locales.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4853,"children":4854},{},[4855,4857,4862],{"type":36,"value":4856},"La domination des pays occidentaux sur le marché de l'alimentation passe non seulement par le pouvoir de la firme, mais aussi par la domination culturelle de certains modes de consommation, ou par le rôle des ONG occidentales, qui se font les défenseurs des populations des pays en développement, comme le montre le ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":4858,"children":4859},{},[4860],{"type":36,"value":4861},"scandale du lait en poudre",{"type":36,"value":4863},". Au milieu des années 1970, Oxfam publie les résultats d'une enquête montrant que le lait maternel est bien plus bénéfique à la croissance des nouveau-nés que le lait en poudre Nestlé. Cette publication initia un mouvement de fond menant à la fondation de l'IBFAN en 1979 par 150 ONG. En 1981, l'OMS vote le code international pour la commercialisation des produits pour nourrissons interdisant toute publicité incitant les mères à substituer le lait en poudre à l'allaitement maternel, que Nestlé signa. La firme continua cependant de promouvoir ses produits en Afrique, en Asie, et en Amérique latine, par ses panneaux publicitaires ou par le biais des personnels hospitaliers comme le montre un rapport de l'IBFAN de 2010. Les nourrissons sont nourris au biberon dans les hôpitaux, si bien qu'une fois chez elle la mère n'a plus de lait, et devient dépen
32dante du lait en poudre. Or, selon l'UNICEF, 4 000 nourrissons meurent chaque jour du fait de l'ingestion de lait en poudre mélangé à une eau insalubre ou administré dans des biberons malpropres. C'est donc à la fois la responsabilité du marketing de Nestlé s'appuyant sur le « prestige » des modes de consommation occidentaux qui est mise en cause, et la question de l'accès à l'eau potable dans ces pays.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4865,"children":4866},{},[4867],{"type":36,"value":4868},"De multiples exemples peuvent ainsi illustrer les inégalités créées et entretenues par la firme : travail forcé et travail des enfants dans la filière cacao, mais aussi faible rémunération des producteurs, comme dans les petites exploitations familiales de café.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4870,"children":4872},{"id":4871},"c-les-conséquences-environnementales",[4873],{"type":36,"value":4874},"C â Les conséquences environnementales",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4876,"children":4877},{},[4878],{"type":36,"value":4879},"Les pratiques de la firme Nestlé mettent également en évidence des enjeux relevant de la durabilité du système alimentaire productiviste actuel, dont elle est contributeur actif. Sa production génère de fortes externalités négatives sur l'environnement, en particulier celui des pays producteurs, des pays en développement, où les législations sont moins contraignantes. C'est une fois encore des acteurs issus du monde occidental qui interviennent pour protester contre ces pratiques, à l'image de l'ONG Greenpeace.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4881,"children":4882},{},[4883],{"type":36,"value":4884},"En mars 2010, Greenpeace publie un rapport sur la déforestation en Indonésie, ciblant particulièrement Nestlé, la firme se fournissant auprès du premier producteur indonésien d'huile de palme, Sinar Mas. Cette déforestation provoque la destruction de l'habitat naturel d'espèces animales et de la biodiversité, tout en émettant de nombreux gaz à effet de serre. L'ONG engage une campagne contre Nestlé, produisant une vidéo YouTube parodiant les publicités de la barre chocolatée Kit-Kat, que la firme fait retirer du site, donnant une visibilité supplémentaire à l'action de Greenpeace. Sur les réseaux sociaux, des militants détournent le logo de la marque, transformant « Kit-Kat » en « Killer ». Face à la polémique, Nestlé se voit finalement contrainte à des excuses et annonce cesser toute collaboration avec les productions d'huile de palme non durable. Malgré ces promesses, la firme est aujourd'hui toujours responsable de la déforestation en Indonésie.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4886,"children":4887},{},[4888],{"type":36,"value":4889},"Nestlé est également un important producteur de déchets alimentaires. Sa filiale Nespresso domine à 85 % le marché des dosettes de café. En 2011, 8 milliards de capsules de café se sont écoulées dans le monde, dont 50 % produites par la marque. Mais ce succès a des conséquences : plus de 40 000 tonnes de déchets sont ainsi produits tous les ans. Ces capsules sont de plus faites en aluminium, dont la production est très demandeuse en énergie et en eau, des ressources qui se raréfient. L'aluminium peut cependant se recycler : le problème est qu'il est rarement récupéré chez les consommateurs, et que les capsules sont trop petites pour être prises en charge par les collectivités dans certains pays. Nestlé cherche cependant à inciter les consommateurs à la confiance en les invitant à rapporter les capsules dans des points de collecte, sans adopter de mesures très contraignantes qui auraient un impact négatif sur ses marges.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":4891,"children":4892},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4894,"children":4896},{"id":4895},"iii-aujourdhui-nestlé-adopte-une-nouvelle-stratégie-un-changement-du-rapport-de-force",[4897],{"type":36,"value":4898},"III â Aujourd'hui Nestlé adopte une nouvelle stratégie : un changement du rapport de force ?",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4900,"children":4902},{"id":4901},"a-le-flexitarisme-le-nutritionnisme-de-nouvelles-demandes-appelant-de-nouvelles-offres",[4903],{"type":36,"value":4904},"A â Le flexitarisme, le nutritionnisme : de nouvelles demandes appelant de nouvelles offres",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4906,"children":4907},{},[4908],{"type":36,"value":4909},"En même temps que ses investissements dans les pays en voie de développement, qui contribuent à en faire un acteur avec toujours plus d'importance et à lui conférer un pouvoir même politique, Nestlé s'est employée à diffuser ses actions dans le monde occidental, là où la conscience écologique demande le plus à être rassurée. Grâce à ce double mouvement la firme a réussi à s'adapter aux tend
32ances actuelles et à la nouvelle demande des pays développés.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4911,"children":4912},{},[4913],{"type":36,"value":4914},"Alors que les nouveaux mangeurs occidentaux changent leur mode de consommation, s'alimentant de plus en plus dans des circuits courts, ou adoptent une nouvelle alimentation réputée plus saine comme le « flexitarisme », le marché de la grande distribution ralentit et les profits de Nestlé stagnent en Europe de l'Ouest et en Amérique du Nord. Le groupe suisse a donc décidé d'engager un changement dans son offre et a par exemple confirmé sa volonté de céder son activité de confiserie aux Ãtats-Unis, en perte de vitesse, à Ferrero. En parallèle, le groupe suisse rachète des start-up prometteuses à l'avant-garde des tendances pour répondre aux aspirations des consommateurs pour une vie plus saine. Nestlé a pris une participation dans Freshly, une société de livraison de repas, a acheté Sweet Earth, un fabricant de produits pour les végétariens, et Blue Bottle Coffee, une chaîne de café conceptuelle.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4916,"children":4917},{},[4918],{"type":36,"value":4919},"La firme développe également depuis une décennie une filière de l'alimentation axée sur la santé, en parallèle avec la progressive médicalisation des aliments. En décembre 2017 elle a dépensé 2,3 milliards de dollars pour s'offrir le canadien Atrium Innovations, spécialisé dans les produits de santé nutritionnelle. Atrium fera partie de Nestlé Health Science, l'activité de produits de santé grand public de Nestlé. La volonté de se développer encore sur ce marché en croissance, véritable axe de diversification du groupe suisse, illustre la capacité de résilience d'un groupe loin des dangers que représentent les « contre-pouvoirs » de l'alimentation.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4921,"children":4923},{"id":4922},"b-une-volonté-apparente-dadopter-des-pratiques-durables-et-équitables",[4924],{"type":36,"value":4925},"B â Une volonté apparente d'adopter des pratiques durables et équitablesâ¦",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4927,"children":4928},{},[4929],{"type":36,"value":4930},"En réaction à la dégradation de l'environnement on a pu assister durant les trois dernières décennies à l'irruption des problématiques du développement durable dans l'agriculture et l'alimentaire. D'abord pour répondre aux exigences nouvelles des consommateurs, mais aussi aux nouvelles lois et mesures politiques des Ãtats et des organisations internationales, les IAA comme Nestlé ont suivi ces nouvelles aspirations à défaut de perdre des parts de marché. C'est en réaction aux attaques de Greenpeace en 2010 que Nestlé s'est par exemple engagée aux côtés d'ONG comme TFT ou Rainforest Alliance afin de lutter contre la déforestation en établissant un cahier des charges complet et supervisé par des acteurs de terrain que sont les ONG.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4932,"children":4933},{},[4934],{"type":36,"value":4935},"Nestlé donne ainsi d'elle-même une image responsable et durable. Dans le rapport 2005 sur l'engagement de Nestlé en Afrique, un des représentants de la compagnie affirme que « Nestlé est toujours perçue comme l'une des meilleures entreprises en matière de responsabilité sociale, notamment dans les pays en développement. Par rapport à d'autres régions, les consommateurs africains sont parmi les plus susceptibles de noter positivement la performance de Nestlé dans ce domaine ». Pour un grand nombre d'agents économiques, la marque est synonyme d'initiative sociale et promeut l'éducation, la gestion durable des ressources, la santé des populations. Nestlé multiplie les clubs, les fondations et les groupes d'actions en collaboration avec la société civile, comme le « Nestlé Nutrition Duchess Club », un groupe de femmes destiné à sensibiliser d'autres femmes à la nutrition. Ce club a proposé des ateliers d'éducation nutritionnelle à cinq mille femmes des Ãtats du Lagos et de Kaduna en 2004, principalement des mères ou des femmes au foyer. Pour autant cette présence n'est pas désintéressée â c'est un investissement qui vise à stabiliser et étendre ses marchés en s'appuyant sur les acteurs politiques et économiques locaux et régionaux. Le marché alimentaire, contrairement aux autres marchés, est durablement enraciné dans les territoires et les systèmes productifs locaux et ne peut pas être pensé sans les acteurs régionaux, ce que Nestlé a bien compris.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4937,"children":4939},{"id":4938},"c-mais-la-stratégie-de-nestlé-sapparente-plus-à -du-greenwashing-quà -une-r
32éelle-avancée",[4940,4942,4947],{"type":36,"value":4941},"C â ⦠mais la stratégie de Nestlé s'apparente plus à du ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4943,"children":4944},{},[4945],{"type":36,"value":4946},"greenwashing",{"type":36,"value":4948}," qu'à une réelle avancée",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4950,"children":4951},{},[4952,4954,4958],{"type":36,"value":4953},"Si les initiatives sociales et écologiques de Nestlé sont bien réelles, leur ampleur et leurs répercussions semblent surestimées par les populations civiles occidentales, victimes d'un ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":4955,"children":4956},{},[4957],{"type":36,"value":4946},{"type":36,"value":4959}," continu. à cause de cela les populations en sont venues à lui prêter l'image d'une entreprise transparente, entreprenante et bienveillante et à croire au pouvoir d'influence directe des ONG sur la firme là où en fait, Nestlé restait maître des événements. C'est ce qu'explique Oxfam dans son rapport « La face cachée des marques » dans lequel l'association évalue les politiques environnementales et sociales des dix plus grandes entreprises mondiales du secteur agroalimentaire. La marque a tout intérêt à prendre ces initiatives et ce ne sont pas des acteurs de la société civile qui l'influencent véritablement dans ses choix, même si leur voix participe à changer les choix des consommateurs qui eux ont une véritable influence.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4961,"children":4962},{},[4963],{"type":36,"value":4964},"Nestlé est un acteur économique incontournable du circuit alimentaire et ses priorités sont d'ordre économique : seule la conjoncture économique a en fait un pouvoir sur ses choix à long terme. Lorsque Nestlé annonce s'engager davantage en faveur du commerce équitable pour son approvisionnement en café, c'est en même temps pour bénéficier des subventions du gouvernement français en faveur du commerce équitable et assurer son image de marque.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4966,"children":4967},{},[4968],{"type":36,"value":4969},"Au contraire la bonne volonté apparente de la firme milliardaire vient se ternir lorsque ses intérêts économiques â qui, rappelons-le, restent la priorité d'une entreprise â entrent en conflit avec les intérêts de la société. Ainsi, en dépit de sa promesse, le géant de l'agroalimentaire continue à faire la publicité de produits mauvais pour la santé sur les chaînes de télévision pour enfants. Une enquête réalisée par FoodWatch en Allemagne vient démontrer que « l'autorégulation des grandes marques en matière de publicité à destination des enfants est sans effet », montrant donc le peu d'influence directe qu'ont ce genre d'associations face à « l'oligopole agroalimentaire mondial ».",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":4971,"children":4972},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4974,"children":4975},{"id":2661},[4976],{"type":36,"value":2664},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4978,"children":4979},{},[4980],{"type":36,"value":4981},"Le cas Nestlé illustre les caractéristiques du système agro-tertiaire actuel qui donne aux IAA transnationales un pouvoir sans commune mesure, entraînant des rapports inégaux avec les autres acteurs de l'alimentation. La firme entretient de fait un lien ambivalent avec les mangeurs, qui, pour elle, semblent se limiter à des consommateurs. Ainsi, pour certains Nestlé est synonyme de produits sains, inscrits dans des pratiques culturelles spécifiques et distinctives, ou encore de création d'emplois et de nouvelles façons de se nourrir ; pour d'autres, elle détruit des emplois locaux par une concurrence déloyale, dégrade l'environnement et contribue à accentuer les inégalités d'accès à l'alimentation, marquées au sein même des territoires.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":4983,"children":4984},{},[4985],{"type":36,"value":4986},"Bien qu'elle soit un acteur économique de premier plan, sa puissance tient peut-être autant, ou plus, du fait qu'elle constitue une marque symbole, une « marque transversale » (Jean Watin-Augouard), synonyme d'une multitude d'images qui représentent cependant des repères communs à différents modèles alimentaires dans le monde, et que la géographie culturelle de l'alimentation aide à comprendre. Cependant, ces repères sont également contraints par l'évolution des manières de se nourrir et des attentes des mangeurs, contraignant la firme à revoir, plus ou moins efficacement, des pratiques depuis longtemps contestées.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":4988,"children":4989},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":4991,"children":4993},{"id":4992},"dossier-documentaire",[4994],{"type":36,"value":4995},"Dossier documentaire",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":4997,"children":4999},{"id":4998},"carte-de-limplantation-industrielle-et-commerciale-de-nestlé-en-afrique",[5000],{"type":36,"value":5001}
32,"Carte de l'implantation industrielle et commerciale de Nestlé en Afrique",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5003,"children":5004},{},[5005],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5006,"children":5007},{},[5008],{"type":36,"value":5009},"Un marché d'avenir où la firme assure un quasi-monopole.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5011,"children":5012},{},[5013],{"type":36,"value":5014},"On peut constater que Nestlé est particulièrement présent en Afrique sub-saharienne. Si quelques bureaux sont présents dans les grandes villes, ce sont surtout par ses usines que Nestlé s'est peu à peu approprié les marchés africains. Cela lui permet surtout de ne pas être tributaire des cours internationaux et de pouvoir approvisionner efficacement la demande africaine en expansion, mais c'est aussi un moyen de faire se développer les économies locales et d'accompagner les populations en les formant, par exemple.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5016,"children":5018},{"id":5017},"organigramme-des-filiales-de-nestlé",[5019],{"type":36,"value":5020},"Organigramme des filiales de Nestlé",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5022,"children":5023},{},[5024],{"type":36,"value":5025},"On peut constater que la firme transnationale est présente dans les marchés alimentaires et cosmétiques autour de grandes marques de surgelés, de boissons, de confiseries ou encore de café. Elle a su gagner tous ces différents marchés grâce à une politique de diversification, grâce à l'absorption de concurrents et grâce à sa puissance financière. Les activités de Nestlé se répartissent comme suit : 26,7 % des ventes dans les boissons, 26,5 % dans les produits laitiers, 18,3 % dans les plats préparés et assaisonnements, 11,6 % dans les confiseries, 11,1 % dans les produits animaliers et 5,8 % dans les produits pharmaceutiques.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5027,"children":5029},{"id":5028},"carte-des-centres-de-rd-de-nestlé-dans-le-monde",[5030],{"type":36,"value":5031},"Carte des centres de R&D de Nestlé dans le monde",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5033,"children":5034},{},[5035],{"type":36,"value":5036},"Principalement présents près des pôles urbains des pays développés du Nord, Nestlé possède 34 centres de recherche : un centre de recherche fondamentale à Lausanne, qui a des antennes en Chine, au Japon et aux Ãtats-Unis, et 29 centres R&D pour sa recherche appliquée par catégorie de produit. En se déployant et en spécialisant ses centres de recherche en fonction des marchés et de leurs préférences de produit, le groupe a intelligemment développé sa gamme de produits en l'adaptant aux cultures alimentaires spécifiques des populations et à leurs modes de consommation.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5038,"children":5040},{"id":5039},"contre-publicité-de-la-part-de-long-foodwatch",[5041],{"type":36,"value":5042},"Contre-publicité de la part de l'ONG FoodWatch",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5044,"children":5045},{},[5046],{"type":36,"value":5047},"FoodWatch est une organisation non gouvernementale de défense des consommateurs qui milite en faveur d'aliments de qualité, sans risque pour la santé et comportant un étiquetage fiable et transparent. Elle joue un rôle de lanceur d'alerte et de contre-pouvoir médiatique face aux géants de l'industrie agro-alimentaire. Pour autant, même si elle jouit d'une visibilité non négligeable et qu'elle est souvent relayée par les médias traditionnels, l'organisation n'a qu'un pouvoir de pression indirect sur des sociétés comme Nestlé qui communiquent avec des moyens d'une autre envergure sur leur bonne volonté et leur implication dans la société.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5049,"children":5051},{"id":5050},"publicité-de-nestlé-sur-sa-participation-au-développement-durable",[5052],{"type":36,"value":5053},"Publicité de Nestlé sur sa participation au développement durable",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5055,"children":5056},{},[5057,5059,5063],{"type":36,"value":5058},"La société Nestlé est une des marques-entreprises les plus appréciées des consommateurs du fait de son image responsable. Elle communique beaucoup sur ses initiatives et sa présence bienveillante dans les pays en développement. Cependant elle continue d'être critiquée par des ONG comme Greenpeace, Oxfam ou FoodWatch. Les positions de Nestlé sont par exemple jugées ambiguës par l'organisation environnementale Greenpeace, qui estime qu'il s'agit d'un exemple de ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5060,"children":5061},{},[5062],{"type":36,"value":4946},{"type":36,"value":5064}," et de démarches insuffisantes pour s'attaquer à une crise environnementale dont Nestlé est en partie responsable.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":5066},[5067,5068,5069,5070,5071,5072,5077,5082,5088,5089],{"id":4409,"depth":673,"text":4412},{"id":4437,"depth":673,"text":4440},{"id":4511,"depth":673,"text":4514},{"id":4560,"depth":673,"text":4563},{"id":2763,"depth":673,"text":2766},{"id":4688,"depth":673,"text":4691,"children":5073},[5074,5075,5076],{"id":4694,"depth":2713,"text":4697},{"id":4715,"depth":2713,"text":4718},{"id":4743,"depth":2713,"text":4746},{"id":4799,"depth":673,"text":4802,"children":5078},[5079,5080,5081],{"id":4805,"depth":2713,"text":4808},{"id":4831,"depth":2713,"text":4834},{"id":4871,"depth":2713,"text":4874},{"id":4895,"depth":673,"text":4898,"children":5083},[5084,5085,5086],{"id":4901,"depth":2713,"text":4904},{"id":4922,"depth":2713,"text":4925},{"id":4938,"depth":2713,"text":5087}
32,"C â ⦠mais la stratégie de Nestlé s'apparente plus à du greenwashing qu'à une réelle avancée",{"id":2661,"depth":673,"text":2664},{"id":4992,"depth":673,"text":4995,"children":5090},[5091,5092,5093,5094,5095],{"id":4998,"depth":2713,"text":5001},{"id":5017,"depth":2713,"text":5020},{"id":5028,"depth":2713,"text":5031},{"id":5039,"depth":2713,"text":5042},{"id":5050,"depth":2713,"text":5053},"content:blog:Nestle.md","blog\u002FNestle.md","blog\u002FNestle",{"loc":4385},{"_path":5101,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":5102,"description":5103,"subtitle":5104,"date":5105,"section":2307,"contentStyle":4341,"summary":5106,"tags":5107,"draft":8,"body":5113,"_type":682,"_id":5439,"_source":684,"_file":5440,"_stem":5441,"_extension":687,"sitemap":5442},"\u002Fblog\u002Fla-vie-de-henry-brulard","Analyse de La Vie de Henry Brulard","Stendhal écrit, dans ses Åuvres intimes :","Stendhal et l'impasse autobiographique","2019-06-07","Analyse littéraire de La Vie de Henry Brulard de Stendhal : la quête de soi par l'écriture, le dialogue entre narrateur, auteur et lecteur, et la mort du Romantisme.",[5108,5109,5110,5111,5112],"littérature","Stendhal","autobiographie","Romantisme","khâgne",{"type":28,"children":5114,"toc":5432},[5115,5126,5129,5133,5148,5159,5166,5178,5183,5188,5191,5197,5202,5207,5212,5224,5229,5234,5239,5258,5261,5267,5272,5277,5295,5300,5305,5308,5314,5319,5330,5335,5341,5353,5364,5367,5372],{"type":31,"tag":705,"props":5116,"children":5118},{"id":5117},"analyse-de-la-vie-de-henry-brulard",[5119,5121],{"type":36,"value":5120},"Analyse de ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5122,"children":5123},{},[5124],{"type":36,"value":5125},"La Vie de Henry Brulard",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5127,"children":5128},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5130,"children":5131},{},[5132],{"type":36,"value":5103},{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":5134,"children":5135},{},[5136],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5137,"children":5138},{},[5139,5141,5146],{"type":36,"value":5140},"« Quel homme suis-je ? Ai-je du bon sens, ai-je du bon sens avec profondeur ? ",{"type":31,"tag":772,"props":5142,"children":5143},{},[5144],{"type":36,"value":5145},"...",{"type":36,"value":5147}," Je ne me connais point moi-même et c'est ce qui quelquefois, la nuit, quand j'y pense, me désole. Suis-je bon, méchant, spirituel, bête ? »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5149,"children":5150},{},[5151,5153,5157],{"type":36,"value":5152},"Stendhal est donc en quête de lui-même. C'est pour tenter de répondre aux questions qu'il se pose qu'il commence à écrire ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5154,"children":5155},{},[5156],{"type":36,"value":5125},{"type":36,"value":5158},", d'abord en son nom, puis très vite sous le masque de Henry Brulard. Cette pulsion biographique, cette hantise égotique tente désespérément de répondre à la question « qui suis-je ? ». L'écrivain Henri Beyle, qui a choisi pour pseudonyme d'auteur Stendhal, écrit ce qu'il déclare être un « roman ». Mais le choix du nom du narrateur, avec ce prénom « Henry », tout comme les événements narrés, les voyages en Italie, les personnages racontés, tout nous invite à penser cette Åuvre comme une autobiographie déguisée. Et c'est ce déguisement même qui permet à Henri Beyle d'écrire profondément pour lui en se dissociant d'une manière presque schizophrénique entre écrivain, auteur et narrateur. Ici l'écrivain est Henri Beyle, l'auteur Stendhal et le narrateur Henry Brulard. Et c'est cette dissociation qui lui permet de créer une progression dialogique. De la même manière, c'est ce déguisement â éclatement de son identité par l'écriture â qui permet au narrateur de s'adresser à un lecteur potentiel et de produire alors un dialogue.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5160,"children":5161},{},[5162],{"type":31,"tag":2326,"props":5163,"children":5165},{"alt":5109,"src":5164},"\u002Fimages\u002Fstendhal.png",[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5167,"children":5168},{},[5169,5171,5176],{"type":36,"value":5170},"Stendhal s'inscrit dans la lignée des ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5172,"children":5173},{},[5174],{"type":36,"value":5175},"Essais",{"type":36,"value":5177}," de Montaigne en tant qu'il rejette une description de soi qui se voudrait « naturelle » à travers une simple autobiographie. Il y préfère la méthode de connaissance indirecte, celle qui se fait par le récit du monde et du passé. Mais alors, lorsque le passé devient indicible, que le « sujet surpasse le disant », comment peut-on exprimer quelque chose de soi à travers ce qui ne peut s'écrire ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5179,"children":5180},{},[5181],{"type":36,"value":5182},"Ce qui se dit avant notre extrait peut nous aider à comprendre cela. Le narrateur parle de son amour passé avec Angela Pietragrua comme d'une « folie » ; il dit que cet amour est « peu intelligible ». Cet amour l'a rendu aveugle et il ne peut le regarder sans être aveuglé. On ne peut le décrire comme on ne peut « distinguer la partie du ciel voisine du soleil ». Le langage est comme aveuglé, incapable de voir et de faire voir ce passé passionnel. Le narrateur conclut : « voilà déjà que j'oublie l'orthographe ». On assiste au premier passage du narrateur à l'auteur. Celui-ci oublie l'orthographe, c'est-à -dire le mode du dire : la prose. C'est une dégénérescence. Voilà pourquoi l'auteur, en s'adressant au lecteur, le somme de fermer le livre si celui-ci est du « parti prosaïque ». Car la prose ici meurt en même temps que le narrateur. Pourtant, en lisant, nous nous rendons compte que nous sommes déjà à la fin du livre ; cela paraît ridicule de nous demander de fermer le livre. En fait, Stendhal joue avec ses identités. Demander au lecteur de fermer le livre alors que nous sommes face à la dernière page, cela ressemble bien à ce qu'un narrateur pourrait dire, n'ayant pas conscience du livre dans lequel il est. Ce sont là les dernières convulsions d'un narrateur mourant en même temps que le langage et que l'Åuvre elle-même. Nous sommes dans les deux dernières pages d'une Åuvre posthume. Cela s'accompagne de la prise de pouvoir croissante de l'auteur, voire même de l'écrivain. C'est là l'acte ultime d'une poétique qui existe par-delà les mots, par-delà le livre.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5184,"children":5185},{},[5186],{"type":36,"value":5187},"Nous le montrerons en trois parties. D'abord, de « Daignez me pardonner » à « J'aurais d'autres maîtresses », où l'auteur commence à parler au lecteur en racontant un sentiment passé de façon directe â l'auteur prend petit à petit la place du narrateur, ce qui annonce la mort de celui-ci. Ensuite, de « Je me suis promené un quart d'heure » à « le plus aimé en sa vie », où l'on assiste à un changement de ton : le narrateur se remet en question sans cesse et parle au lecteur indirectement. Enfin, de « Ma foi je ne puis continuer » à « C'est impossible pour moi », où cette fois l'auteur est catégorique : il est impossible d'écrire. L'auteur se suicide à son tour pour laisser la place à l'homme, rendre sa vie à l'écrivain.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5189,"children":5190},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":5192,"children":5194},{"id":5193},"i-le-dialogue-avec-le-lecteur-objectiver-le-moi",[5195],{"type":36,"value":5196},"I. Le dialogue avec le lecteur : objectiver le moi",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5198,"children":5199},{},[5200],{"type":36,"value":5201},"Dans une première partie, nous allons montrer comment le dialogue entre l'auteur et le lecteur présumé permet à Stendhal de mettre une partie de lui-même en Åuvre, d'objectiver une partie de lui à travers Henry Brulard afin de pouvoir réfléchir sur lui-même.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5203,"children":5204},{},[5205],{"type":36,"value":5206},"Dès le début de l'extrait, le lecteur est encensé dans une sorte d'apologie, d'ode parodique. Stendhal rappelle ainsi le rapport de nécessité entre celui qui écrit et celui qui lit. Si le lecteur croit venir par bénévolat, c'est-à -dire sans obligation et de façon gratuite, on lui rappelle ironiquement son importance, car c'est par lui que Stendhal peut se révéler à lui-même. Stendhal, à travers ce qui reste du narrateur, prend à parti le lecteur et l'emmène avec lui dans une dialectique.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5208,"children":5209},{},[5210],{"type":36,"value":5211},"Il pique la curiosité de celui-ci en se moquant de lui pour avoir toute son attention. « Fermez le livre », ordonne-t-il, si vous êtes vieux ou si vous n'avez plus l'âme d'un poète. Ce qui, en soi, semble être la même chose. Bien sûr, cette tournure donnera au lecteur l'envie de lire la suite, tout en lui faisant comprendre qu'il doit ouvrir sa sensibilité poétique.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5213,"children":5214},{},[5215,5217,5222],{"type":36,"value":5216},"Stendhal semble avoir peur des apparences. Il donne à voir une autocritique en se mettant à la place de son lecteur potentiel. Son récit « semblera absurde ». Si Stendhal parle au lecteur directement, c'est en quelque sorte pour assurer l'importance du lecteur. Et plus le statut d'existence de ce lecteur présumé semble assuré, plus Stendhal peut adopter son point de vue et ainsi avoir un langage réflexif. Si la quête de soi est bien le motif premier de l'Åuvre ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5218,"children":5219},{},[5220],{"type":36,"value":5221},"Vie de Henry Brulard",{"type":36,"value":5223},", alors le dialogue avec le lecteur, entre deux entités séparées par la distance du livre, est l'instrument qui permet à la conscience de rebondir et à celui qui écrit sur soi de se voir avec les yeux d'un autre.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5225,"children":5226},{},[5227],{"type":36,"value":5228},"C'est d'ailleurs en s'exprimant au lecteur que l'auteur fait progresser sa pensée, se reprend voire se contredit. D'abord, il admet le caractère absurde de son récit, c'est-à -dire le fossé entre ce qui est dit et ce qui veut se dire â c'est cette dissonance qui crée le sentiment absurde. Ensuite, il décrit un amour au-delà des choses : au-delà de la vie terrestre car céleste, au-delà de la raison car « passionné ». Cet amour passé l'a « enlevé à la terre ». C'est-à -dire qu'à l'époque, il vivait cet amour comme une poésie, au-delà des choses prosaïques. Mais en même temps, à l'heure où il écrit ces lignes, Stendhal se rend compte que cet amour l'a « enlevé à la terre », c'est-à -dire qu'il baignait dans les illusions, qu'il n'était plus en phase avec la réalité et que cet amour-là était en fait auto-suggéré. Par cette phrase, Stendhal exprime l'impasse biographique. Soit il écrit sur le passé depuis son présent, et alors ce passé lui échappera toujours en partie ; soit il écrit sur le passé depuis le passé, et alors la totalité de la réalité de l'époque, qu'il n'a pu comprendre que rétrospectivement, lui échappe. Ce passé est donc une « chimère », composé d'éléments qui ne peuvent, en réalité, pas se mélanger.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5230,"children":5231},{},[5232],{"type":36,"value":5233},"C'est précisément de cela que se rend compte Stendhal en écrivant. La même phrase change de sens sous ses yeux. C'est en tâchant d'écrire son passé, de le mettre en Åuvre, que Stendhal peut alors passer du statut de sujet à celui d'objet et tenter ainsi de se comprendre. De cette manière, le paragraphe suivant agit comme une rétrospective où l'auteur, en réaction à ce qu'il vient de lire sur lui-même, tente de se justifier. « Non pas de fidélité mais d'une sorte de constance » : litote qui montre la distance qui s'est opérée entre le moi passé â qui aurait parlé de fidélité â et le moi présent qui se relit lui-même et se reprend par «
32constance », car il se trouve lui-même ridicule. Le moi passé est comme nié, et puisque c'est le narrateur, Henry Brulard, qui a essayé de raconter ce passé tout au long du livre, c'est lui aussi qui commence à mourir.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5235,"children":5236},{},[5237],{"type":36,"value":5238},"Finalement, cette dialectique se résout par la scission définitive de ces deux moi et l'identification de Stendhal au seul moi présent. Ceci se vérifie par l'utilisation prononcée du passé imparfait. Il y a le « je » qui aimais, qui « croyais », qui donc étais « trompé » â il semble qu'il se faisait tromper dans tous les sens du terme â et le « je » présent qui vient se moquer du « je » passé car il croyait être l'égal de sa femme en ayant d'autres maîtresses.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5240,"children":5241},{},[5242,5244,5249,5251,5256],{"type":36,"value":5243},"Stendhal semble donc entendre le mot « individualité » comme deux mots : ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5245,"children":5246},{},[5247],{"type":36,"value":5248},"individu",{"type":36,"value":5250}," et ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5252,"children":5253},{},[5254],{"type":36,"value":5255},"dualité",{"type":36,"value":5257},". Dualité de l'identité, du moi. La connaissance de soi passe par un dialogue et une remise en doute à travers le texte, entre le narrateur et l'auteur, et par l'auteur et le lecteur. C'est-à -dire une partie de Stendhal avec une autre partie de soi.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5259,"children":5260},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":5262,"children":5264},{"id":5263},"ii-le-questionnement-intérieur-quand-le-langage-saffole",[5265],{"type":36,"value":5266},"II. Le questionnement intérieur : quand le langage s'affole",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5268,"children":5269},{},[5270],{"type":36,"value":5271},"En deuxième partie, nous montrerons comment Stendhal se questionne lui-même plus en profondeur puisqu'il ne s'adresse plus au lecteur directement, maintenant qu'il a conscience de son passé â puisqu'il a réussi à en faire un objet grâce à l'idée de lecteur.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5273,"children":5274},{},[5275],{"type":36,"value":5276},"« Je me suis promené un quart d'heure avant d'écrire », écrit-il. Cette ellipse signe l'arrêt de mort du narrateur. Stendhal écrit maintenant pour lui-même. Par ce saut temporel, il apparaît que celui qui écrit vient de faire une pause, vient de digérer voire de ruminer ce qui vient de se passer à l'instant par le jeu de l'écriture. L'auteur s'adresse à lui-même dans une sorte de dialogue schizophrène. Il y a un emballement, une dégénérescence du texte. Les murs entre le livre et le hors-livre se brisent peu à peu. Le narrateur vit ses derniers instants et balbutie ses derniers mots.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5278,"children":5279},{},[5280,5282,5287,5289,5294],{"type":36,"value":5281},"Si l'auteur est bien celui qui préexiste au texte et qui avait pour ambition de raconter son passé, et si le narrateur est bien l'être qui vit à travers l'écriture en train de se faire, alors le narrateur, après l'intervention directe de l'auteur, se met à exprimer l'impasse dans laquelle il se trouve. Parlant à celui qui veut raconter son passé, il lui demande : « Comment raconter raisonnablement ces temps-là ? » C'est un discours sur le discours, une logologie qui nous dirait que la forme du texte est antérieure à la signification de celui-ci. C'est seulement dans l'Åuvre en train de se faire que l'artiste découvre ce qu'il veut effectivement faire, ce qu'il veut en fait se dire à lui-même â comme l'écrit Rousset dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5283,"children":5284},{},[5285],{"type":36,"value":5286},"Forme et Signification",{"type":36,"value":5288},". Il y a donc là la création d'un dialogue entre le discursif et le figuratif, entre le sens du discours â le signifié â et le symbole â le signifiant â, qui fait que Stendhal écrit qu'il ne peut plus écrire. Il ne veut pas se réduire aux « formes raisonnables ». Il ne veut pas « dire ce qu'étaient les choses » tout en nous permettant de le lire entre les lignes. D'ailleurs, comme affolé, il nous dit : « j'aime mieux renvoyer à un autre jour ». Il exprime alors l'impasse du langage et l'impasse biographique. En effet, Henry Brulard était aveuglé par un amour illusoire, qui le plongeait dans un bonheur illusoire. En l'écrivant, il s'en rend compte. D'une part, il ne peut écrire ce passé comme il le ressentait car il ne le ressent plus comme cela ; d'autre part, il ne peut pas non plus écrire les faits à la lumière de ce qu'il « découvre pour la première fois », parce qu'il a conscience de son ridicule ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5290,"children":5291},{},[5292],{"type":36,"value":5293},"a posteriori",{"type":36,"value":1775},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5296,"children":5297},{},[5298],{"type":36,"value":5299},"Cette impasse est donc la seule chose qu'il puisse exprimer, à travers la répétition de questions, comme un fou qui sombrerait dans une aporie : « Quel parti prendre ? » « Comment peindre le bonheur fou ? » « Le lecteur a-t-il été jamais amoureux fou ? » On assiste même à la répétition de « fou », augmentant le sentiment de folie effrénée.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5301,"children":5302},{},[5303],{"type":36,"value":5304},"C'est finalement à travers ses différents masques que Stendhal avoue son échec. Le langage devient fou. Le narrateur se meurt. La prose s'annule. La quête de soi semble impossible.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5306,"children":5307},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":5309,"children":5311},{"id":5310},"iii-laporie-résolue-dire-lindicible",[5312],{"type":36,"value":5313},"III. L'aporie résolue : dire l'indicible",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5315,"children":5316},{},[5317],{"type":36,"value":5318},"Dans une troisième partie, nous allons montrer comment Stendhal exprime une aporie, dit l'indicible, et comment il la résout en même temps qu'il l'exprime.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5320,"children":5321},{},[5322,5324,5328],{"type":36,"value":5323},"Le problème ici est cerné. « Le sujet surpasse le disant. » Le signifié excède le signifiant. La réalité est toujours plus vaste que le langage. C'est d'ailleurs le propre du langage. Celui-ci est utile parce qu'il généralise le particulier pour le rendre communicable. C'est justement cette force qui transforme l'information du monde en information significative qui permet à deux personnes différentes de communiquer. Mais dans le cas d'une unique personne, parce qu'on pense avant tout par le langage, celui-ci nous empêche d'accéder à nous-mêmes. Il traduit grossièrement ce qui se passe au fond de nous. C'est donc un moi abâtardi que l'on présente à soi-même lorsque l'on tente de s'écrire. Alors que le Romantisme est le courant de la parole de l'âme et des passions, qu'on fait ironiquement commencer avec Stendhal, c'est la mort de ce Romantisme qu'annonce Stendhal dans sa dernière Åuvre, publiée posthume. « Je ne peux continuer », écrit-il. Il avoue son échec. Il avoue la défaite de l'expression. à la fin de ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5325,"children":5326},{},[5327],{"type":36,"value":5125},{"type":36,"value":5329},", le Romantisme est mort. On ne peut écrire ses passions, on ne peut parler de soi, on ne peut parler tout court sans laisser de côté la vie â celle que tente désespérément d'affirmer toute la période dite « romantique ». Avec le narrateur, avec Stendhal et cette Åuvre, c'est tout le Romantisme qui meurt.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5331,"children":5332},{},[5333],{"type":36,"value":5334},"L'auteur qui voulait se raconter est mis en échec. « Je » est « ridicule » et ne peut être « cru ». L'écrivain lui-même est mis en échec puisqu'il déclare « arrêter d'écrire » et reporter cela au lendemain. Alors on peut comprendre ce texte comme un texte fou. Texte fou car il bégaie, comme dans un affolement de la pensée. Il s'autodétruit : l'auteur prend le pas sur le narrateur, Stendhal commence à redevenir lui-même, il se parle à lui-même dans une gradation de questions. « Rien ne peut empêcher ma folie. » Résolu, après avoir tué le père, l'auteur annonce son suicide au bord du précipice matérialisé par la dernière ligne depuis laquelle se jette Stendhal : « On gâte des sentiments si tendres à les raconter en détails. » Le langage est forclos. Le livre se ferme sur lui-même et, à en croire tout cela, c'est Henri Beyle qui conclut. C'est une invitation à sortir du livre, à arrêter d'écrire et à arrêter de lire. à arrêter de « raconter ses sentiments au risque de les gâter ». Il faut sortir. Au sens strict du terme. Poser le livre sur la table de chevet et aller vivre.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5336,"children":5338},{"id":5337},"au-delà -de-léchec-le-triomphe-du-moi",[5339],{"type":36,"value":5340},"Au-delà de l'échec : le triomphe du moi",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5342,"children":5343},{},[5344,5346,5351],{"type":36,"value":5345},"Mais ce n'est pas tout. Car on peut entendre cet aveu d'échec comme le triomphe du moi à soi. Le moi, qui est tout dans ce qui se donne à voir comme une autobiographie, s'annule lui-même. Narcisse absolu, son image â qui n'a pas pu être confiée au langage â est ici au-delà du langage. Ainsi le moi est « in-croyable » â on ne peut le croire, car la parole n'a plus aucun sens â comme il est « incroyable », c'est-à -dire extraordinaire, en dehors de la réalité, au-delà du ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5347,"children":5348},{},[5349],{"type":36,"value":5350},"logos",{"type":36,"value":5352},". Si « peindre le bonheur » est « impossible pour moi », il est donc possible pour le dialogue entre les moi(s), entre le narrateur, l'auteur et le lecteur. Face à son propre regard, face au regard du lecteur et face au langage, Stendhal répond à la question autobiographique dans une conclusion presque platonique.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5354,"children":5355},{},[5356,5358,5362],{"type":36,"value":5357},"Cette conclusion est illustrée par la forme même de l'Åuvre, puisque « fermez le livre » et « sautez cinquante pages » sous-entendent que le livre se poursuit et donc qu'il reste inachevé. Or, si l'on fait l'hypothèse que ceci est calculé, alors la fin n'est plus un suicide qui invite à sortir du texte mais un mouvement perpétuel qui ne se finit jamais. ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5359,"children":5360},{},[5361],{"type":36,"value":5125},{"type":36,"value":5363}," se donne à voir comme texte fini dans son inachèvement déterminé. Comme un travail toujours en cours, toujours inaccompl
32i et à accomplir. La quête de soi, à l'image du livre inachevé, est une poétique perpétuelle. Ici, le « connais-toi toi-même » et le « je sais que je ne sais rien » de l'école platonique sont comme deux vérités en lutte perpétuelle qui s'illustrent et prennent corps dans l'Åuvre de Henri Beyle. Le récit autobiographique, par son déguisement et ses multiples visages, n'a d'autre fin que lui-même. Il est sujet et objet en même temps, constituant et constitutif du moi. Le récit du moi, dialogique, est une élaboration qui reste inachevée et pourtant à faire. Comme une question, toujours en suspension.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5365,"children":5366},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":5368,"props":5369,"children":5370},"h4",{"id":4437},[5371],{"type":36,"value":4440},{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":5373,"children":5374},{},[5375,5389,5402,5417],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5376,"children":5377},{},[5378,5382,5383,5387],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5379,"children":5380},{},[5381],{"type":36,"value":5109},{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5384,"children":5385},{},[5386],{"type":36,"value":5125},{"type":36,"value":5388},", 1835-1836 (publication posthume, 1890)",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5390,"children":5391},{},[5392,5396,5397],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5393,"children":5394},{},[5395],{"type":36,"value":5109},{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5398,"children":5399},{},[5400],{"type":36,"value":5401},"Åuvres intimes",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5403,"children":5404},{},[5405,5410,5411,5415],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5406,"children":5407},{},[5408],{"type":36,"value":5409},"Montaigne",{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5412,"children":5413},{},[5414],{"type":36,"value":5175},{"type":36,"value":5416},", 1580",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5418,"children":5419},{},[5420,5425,5426,5430],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5421,"children":5422},{},[5423],{"type":36,"value":5424},"Rousset (Jean)",{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5427,"children":5428},{},[5429],{"type":36,"value":5286},{"type":36,"value":5431},", 1962",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":5433},[5434,5435,5436],{"id":5193,"depth":673,"text":5196},{"id":5263,"depth":673,"text":5266},{"id":5310,"depth":673,"text":5313,"children":5437},[5438],{"id":5337,"depth":2713,"text":5340},"content:blog:la-vie-de-henry-brulard.md","blog\u002Fla-vie-de-henry-brulard.md","blog\u002Fla-vie-de-henry-brulard",{"loc":5101},{"_path":5444,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":5445,"description":9,"subtitle":5446,"date":5447,"authors":15,"tags":5448,"section":2307,"contentStyle":4341,"draft":8,"body":5456,"_type":682,"_id":6622,"_source":684,"_file":6623,"_stem":6624,"_extension":687,"sitemap":6625},"\u002Fblog\u002Fcarl-gustav-jung","L'inconscient chez Jung : une philosophie de l'âme","Exposé philosophique â Carl Gustav Jung","2019-06-05",[5449,5450,5451,5452,5453,5454,5455],"philosophie","psychanalyse","Jung","Freud","inconscient","éthique","individuation",{"type":28,"children":5457,"toc":6596},[5458,5463,5466,5470,5475,5532,5535,5540,5545,5557,5575,5580,5583,5589,5608,5620,5625,5630,5635,5641,5653,5658,5676,5688,5693,5699,5711,5717,5722,5727,5732,5737,5750,5765,5775,5787,5812,5815,5821,5827,5839,5844,5849,5855,5860,5870,5880,5885,5897,5907,5912,5918,5923,5933,5943,5959,5964,5970,5989,6008,6027,6060,6065,6070,6125,6137,6156,6166,6185,6191,6209,6214,6220,6232,6240,6260,6265,6268,6274,6280,6291,6309,6315,6320,6344,6356,6366,6372,6377,6427,6432,6438,6457,6466,6485,6488,6492,6503,6508,6526,6531,6536,6547,6550,6556],{"type":31,"tag":3477,"props":5459,"children":5460},{},[5461],{"type":36,"value":5462},"Rédigé dans le cadre de la classe préparatoire B\u002FL aux grandes écoles du lycée Lakanal, pendant le cours de philosophie d'Emmanuelle Rousset.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5464,"children":5465},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":5467,"children":5468},{"id":4437},[5469],{"type":36,"value":4440},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5471,"children":5472},{},[5473],{"type":36,"value":5474},"::: biblio",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":5476,"children":5477},{},[5478,5483,5488,5499,5510,5520],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5479,"children":5480},{},[5481],{"type":36,"value":5482},"Cours de Jacques Darriulat sur Lacan.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5484,"children":5485},{},[5486],{"type":36,"value":5487},"Séminaires de Lacan.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5489,"children":5490},{},[5491,5493,5498],{"type":36,"value":5492},"Christian Kerslake, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5494,"children":5495},{},[5496],{"type":36,"value":5497},"Deleuze et l'inconscient",{"type":36,"value":1775},{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5500,"children":5501},{},[5502,5504,5509],{"type":36,"value":5503},"Carl Gustav Jung, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5505,"children":5506},{},[5507],{"type":36,"value":5508},"L'homme à la découverte de son âme",{"type":36,"value":1775},{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5511,"children":5512},{},[5513,5514,5519],{"type":36,"value":5503},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5515,"children":5516},{},[5517],{"type":36,"value":5518},"Dialectique du moi et de l'inconscient",{"type":36,"value":1775},{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5521,"children":5522},{},[5523,5525,5530],{"type":36,"value":5524},"Yves Klein, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5526,"children":5527},{},[5528],{"type":36,"value":5529},"Contre Carl Gustav Jung",{"type":36,"value":5531},".\n:::",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5533,"children":5534},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5536,"children":5537},{},[5538],{"type":36,"value":5539},"Bonjour à tous et à toutes. Aujourd'hui nous allons étudier un objet qui pour certains encore aujourd'hui est assez controversé. On remet souvent en doute l'existence d'un inconscient puisque, à l'instar de l'inconnaissable, l'inconscient désigne tout ce qui n'est pas accessible par la conscience. Ce qui est Autre, ce qui n'est pas directement appréhendable ni par les sens ni par la réflexivité de la raison a souvent été nié par tout ce qui se veut scientifique ou rationnel tout simplement parce que, par sa n
32ature même, la raison se porte sur des objets de connaissance là où l'inconscient désigne « ce qui n'est pas connu ». Désigner par le langage quelque chose qui n'est pas connaissable semble donc totalement étranger à un quelconque effort raisonnable.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5541,"children":5542},{},[5543],{"type":36,"value":5544},"Au mieux l'inconscient serait donc ce qui désigne ce qui est mais dont nous n'avons pas accès, et donc serait l'ensemble de l'indicible, l'ensemble de l'inconnaissable. Il serait alors assimilé à ce que les philosophies agnostiques comme le criticisme kantien, le positivisme de Comte ou l'évolutionnisme de Spencer appellent Dieu ou le Réel. Le grand Autre. Et alors on ne peut rien en faire puisque c'est dans cet ensemble que loge tout ce qui résiste à la raison. C'est un ensemble où les lois de la logique n'opèrent plus car y sont réunis des choses contradictoires, informes, non comprises dans l'espace ni dans le temps. L'effort de la raison qui tend justement à opérer des liens de causalités, de quantité, de qualité, de modalité est impuissant face à ce qui est inconnaissable. Et au pire, pour certains, l'inconscient est tout simplement une fable.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5546,"children":5547},{},[5548,5550,5555],{"type":36,"value":5549},"Pour dépasser cette aporie il nous faut élargir un peu la définition de l'inconscient grâce à la notion de temps en le définissant non pas comme l'inconnaissable mais comme « ce qui désigne tout ce qui n'est pas accessible par la conscience ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5551,"children":5552},{},[5553],{"type":36,"value":5554},"à un moment donné",{"type":36,"value":5556}," ». à partir de là on peut admettre l'existence d'une certaine forme d'inconscient chez le sujet. Même si là encore traiter d'un concept de psychologie analytique dans un cadre philosophique semble quelque peu douteux. Le but de mon exposé sera donc :",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":5558,"children":5559},{},[5560,5565,5570],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5561,"children":5562},{},[5563],{"type":36,"value":5564},"dans un premier temps, d'inscrire l'inconscient et son étude dans un cadre philosophique pour essayer de comprendre la pertinence de cette notion qui, nous allons le voir, se justifie philosophiquement et est très heuristique d'un point de vue de l'analyse du sujet par le sujet. Cette notion permet en quelque sorte de catalyser toutes les questions qui se présentent au sujet lorsqu'il recherche ou admet que son moi n'est pas le seul maître dans sa propre maison ;",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5566,"children":5567},{},[5568],{"type":36,"value":5569},"dans un deuxième temps, de rentrer plus précisément dans les théories sur l'inconscient afin de vous présenter la théorie freudienne et la théorie jungienne ;",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":5571,"children":5572},{},[5573],{"type":36,"value":5574},"dans un troisième temps, nous verrons comment la théorie jungienne de l'inconscient permet de constituer une éthique qui permet au sujet de trouver le chemin de sa propre affirmation (car c'est un chemin et non une destination, et il s'agit de s'affirmer, de persévérer dans son être par le travail d'objectivation de son propre désir).",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5576,"children":5577},{},[5578],{"type":36,"value":5579},"Et puisque nous n'avons jamais étudié la psychologie analytique en prépa B\u002FL, j'espère faire naître une curiosité positive sur cette discipline qui peut être utile individuellement et qui présente une importance particulière pour ceux qui aiment les sciences sociales car aujourd'hui, je le crois, notre génération doit faire dialoguer ensemble la psychologie et la sociologie afin d'offrir de meilleures clés de compréhension aux scie
32nces humaines.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5581,"children":5582},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":5584,"children":5586},{"id":5585},"i-linconscient-compris-dans-un-cadre-philosophique",[5587],{"type":36,"value":5588},"I\u002F L'inconscient compris dans un cadre philosophique",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5590,"children":5592},{"id":5591},"linconscient-bullshit-ou-pas-bullshit",[5593,5595,5600,5602,5606],{"type":36,"value":5594},"L'inconscient : ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5596,"children":5597},{},[5598],{"type":36,"value":5599},"bullshit",{"type":36,"value":5601}," ou pas ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5603,"children":5604},{},[5605],{"type":36,"value":5599},{"type":36,"value":5607}," ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5609,"children":5610},{},[5611,5613,5618],{"type":36,"value":5612},"L'inconscient en effet est un concept de psychologie analytique qui se réfère, par définition, à ce qui dans le sujet existe sans pour autant être compris par le sujet (qui vient de ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5614,"children":5615},{},[5616],{"type":36,"value":5617},"com-prendre",{"type":36,"value":5619},", c'est-à -dire prendre avec soi, c'est-à -dire faire émerger à la conscience et avoir un contenu conscient appréhendable par tout ce qui constitue le conscient, que ce soit la raison ou l'imaginaire). L'inconscient est une chose à part entière et il faut bien la séparer de la conscience au sein de l'ensemble psyché.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5621,"children":5622},{},[5623],{"type":36,"value":5624},"Loin d'être tout à fait inaccessible, l'inconscient est en fait souvent défini comme ce qui n'est pas conscient pour le sujet à un moment donné et qui est susceptible de le devenir pour lui à d'autres moments et sous certaines conditions. Par exemple « une passion ou un raisonnement peuvent être inconscients ». Le mot inconscient dans cette acception est souvent appliqué à certains faits (au sens fort du mot fait) : par exemple aux faits économiques, aux faits religieux, au fait social. Ces faits, tout en apparaissant parfois sous forme consciente, ne peuvent être étudiés scientifiquement qu'en les considérant comme des « choses » ayant une réalité permanente et distincte de leurs manifestations. En somme, si l'on peut étudier les différentes manifestations sociales ou inconscientes c'est parce qu'on fait l'hypothèse d'un fait social qui se cacherait derrière ces manifestations. Alors le travail du scientifique tendrait à objectiver ce fait.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5626,"children":5627},{},[5628],{"type":36,"value":5629},"De la même manière qu'on ne peut faire de la sociologie sans admettre une certaine réalité au « fait social », on ne peut faire de la psychanalyse sans admettre au moins partiellement une certaine objectivité à l'inconscient â objectivité dans le sens où on reconnaîtrait la qualité d'objet à ce qui est nommé inconscient. C'est d'ailleurs chez Freud un des axiomes de son raisonnement. Quelqu'un qui n'admet pas une certaine forme d'existence à l'inconscient (et si elle n'est pas remplacée par une autre notion qui aurait les mêmes attributs mais se cacherait sous un autre nom) se voit donc d'une manière ou d'une autre aveugle à ce qui lui échappe en tant que moi. Puisqu'il faut interpréter les expressions de l'inconscient pour accéder à certaines formes du matériel inconscient, partir du principe qu'il n'y a rien à interpréter c'est de toute façon ne donner aucun sens psychologique aux événements phénoménologiques, psychiques et émotionnels qui arrivent au sujet et c'est se fermer à un travail réflexif qui permet au moi de se transformer.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5631,"children":5632},{},[5633],{"type":36,"value":5634},"En supposant qu'il existe et qu'on puisse l'objectiver par un travail méthodique, on opère en tant qu'analysant le même travail que celui des archéologues qui cherchent à peindre le portrait de civilisations passées à travers les ruines qu'ils ont laissées. L'analysant se doit donc d'être très attentif aux signes de l'inconscient. Si l'existence de l'inconscient est un axiome de la théorie freudienne, Jung dit lui-même selon ses termes que c'est « une hypothèse de travail » bien que chez Jung il prend racine et est légitimé par la neuro
32physiologie car il prend racine dans un « inconscient cérébral » qui renferme tout ce qui serait inscrit dans les structures de notre cerveau : les réflexes par exemple.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5636,"children":5638},{"id":5637},"linconscient-de-quoi-parle-t-on",[5639],{"type":36,"value":5640},"L'inconscient, de quoi parle-t-on ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5642,"children":5643},{},[5644,5646,5651],{"type":36,"value":5645},"Pour définir plus précisément ce dont nous allons parler tout au long de cet exposé, il faut revenir sur la définition de l'inconscient. De même que ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5647,"children":5648},{},[5649],{"type":36,"value":5650},"conscient",{"type":36,"value":5652}," a deux sens (conscience spontanée, conscience réfléchie), l'inconscient désigne soit ce qui échappe à la première, soit seulement ce qui échappe à la seconde. Dans un cadre kantien, on dirait que l'inconscient est soit ce qui échappe à l'aperception, soit ce qui échappe à l'entendement qui réfléchit, émet des jugements et crée des liens entre les différents objets matériels ou idéels qui se présentent à lui.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5654,"children":5655},{},[5656],{"type":36,"value":5657},"Ainsi une perception peut être reçue mais non perçue (cela rejoint la théorie des petites perceptions de Leibniz, ce qu'on appelle aujourd'hui les perceptions subliminales) puisque non remarquée par la conscience. Une perception actuelle ou un souvenir (qui sont des éléments psychiques) peuvent rester inconscients car non remarqués par la conscience réfléchie et devenir conscients aussitôt que l'attention s'y porte, ou du moins après un moment d'effort pour les saisir. Au contraire un travail mental peut s'effectuer d'une façon telle qu'on n'en ait pas conscience, même à la réflexion.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5659,"children":5660},{},[5661,5663,5668,5670,5674],{"type":36,"value":5662},"Il serait utile de différencier ces deux inconscients en les nommant différemment. Ainsi nous réserverons les mots de ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5664,"children":5665},{},[5666],{"type":36,"value":5667},"subconscient",{"type":36,"value":5669}," à tout ce qui est accessible à la conscience mais qu'elle ne remarque pas à un moment donné. Et nous appellerons ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5671,"children":5672},{},[5673],{"type":36,"value":5453},{"type":36,"value":5675}," les causes et les processus qui se font dans le sujet au dépens du sujet qu'il ne remarque pas.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5677,"children":5678},{},[5679,5681,5686],{"type":36,"value":5680},"On peut imaginer que le subconscient est comme la toile de fond sur laquelle la conscience éclairerait certains éléments comme le ferait un projecteur avec un certain rayon sur une toile. On peut aussi résumer cela par les livres amusants ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5682,"children":5683},{},[5684],{"type":36,"value":5685},"Où est Charlie ?",{"type":36,"value":5687}," où l'Åil, guidé par la conscience, se pose ici et là de manière plus ou moins calculée.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5689,"children":5690},{},[5691],{"type":36,"value":5692},"L'inconscient au contraire semble se rapprocher des notions grecques et latines du destin. En effet l'inconscient se manifeste à travers nos actes, nos pensées mais est toujours caché. Il est comme une épée de Damoclès au-dessus de notre tête. D'ailleurs Freud interprète le mythe d'Ådipe en disant que le destin et l'inconscient sont une seule et même chose. Pourtant à l'inverse du destin qui était transcendant car imposé par les dieux, il est ici immanent au sujet. Et c'est là très important car cela vient expliquer l'utilité de cette notion.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5694,"children":5696},{"id":5695},"linconscient-en-quoi-cela-est-il-utile",[5697],{"type":36,"value":5698},"L'inconscient, en quoi cela est-il utile ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5700,"children":5701},{},[5702,5704,5709],{"type":36,"value":5703},"Pour Deleuze, la puissance de la notion d'inconscient telle qu'elle est énoncée par Freud tient au fait qu'elle se loge au plus profond du moi contrairement au destin qui se loge au plus éloigné du moi, dans le pays des dieux. Freud a révolutionné le monde par le fait qu'il a ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5705,"children":5706},{},[5707],{"type":36,"value":5708},"déterritorialisé",{"type":36,"value":5710}," la notion de l'étrangeté, de l'autre, du non-moi depuis un espace sacré et fermé à l'homme à un espace d'ici-bas. Alors qu'avant on ne pouvait rien chercher du destin, avec Freud on est enfin capable de conscientiser notre propre pouvoir de communication avec ce qui n'est pas tout à fait nous mais qui est en nous.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5712,"children":5714},{"id":5713},"comment-linconscient-est-il-devenu-un-objet-scientifique-reconnu",[5715],{"type":36,"value":5716},"Comment l'inconscient est-il devenu un objet scientifique reconnu ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5718,"children":5719},{},[5720],{"type":36,"value":5721}
32,"Jung est un phénoménologue. Il a lu Kant et connaît la valeur de la science. La force de la psychanalyse du XXᵠsiècle est de transformer l'étude de l'inconscient qui à la base était une affirmation spéculative en une démonstration expérimentale objective. Il ne s'agit plus de simplement spéculer son existence mais, à partir de l'hypothèse de son existence et du travail scientifique, de trouver des preuves et des constantes qui permettraient de rendre compte de son existence immuable. Il s'agit de trouver les formes et les règles qui structurent l'inconscient à partir d'une régression.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5723,"children":5724},{},[5725],{"type":36,"value":5726},"Il y a un glissement à opérer entre l'empirisme et l'expérimentalisme. L'un se fonde sur l'expérience, l'autre sur l'expérimentation. Il y a une hypothèse de faite, ensuite le scientifique fait en sorte de réduire les conditions de l'expérience à un ensemble de données mesurables et, toutes choses étant égales par ailleurs, il peut ensuite constater si les hypothèses se révèlent justes ou non.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5728,"children":5729},{},[5730],{"type":36,"value":5731},"Par exemple, fin XIXᵠon comprend que les névroses ne sont pas de simples problèmes imaginaires, extraordinaires ou « simulés » comme on le prétendait avant mais que les névroses sont des troubles d'ordre fonctionnels du système nerveux. La névrose est une maladie réelle même en l'absence de cause organique.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5733,"children":5734},{},[5735],{"type":36,"value":5736},"Des psychologues très influents ont ainsi montré de manière indiscutable l'existence de l'inconscient :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":5738,"children":5739},{},[5740],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5741,"children":5742},{},[5743,5748],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5744,"children":5745},{},[5746],{"type":36,"value":5747},"Charcot",{"type":36,"value":5749}," prouva de façon définitive la réalité active des « idées fixes ». Il y parvint en suggérant par exemple la paralysie d'un membre à des hystériques en état somnambulique, puis en effaçant par le même procédé les symptômes induits artificiellement. Puisque les deux groupes de symptômes, induits artificiellement et spontanés chez les hystéro-traumatiques, étaient identiques, Charcot put en déduire que dans les deux cas le phénomène de la paralysie était l'effet auto-suggestif de l'« idée d'impuissance motrice » agissant sur le corps dans l'état particulier de conscience obnubilée (par l'hypnose dans ses expériences, ou par un traumatisme) ; et il put déduire que, puisqu'une telle « idée » reste isolée et inaccessible au Moi, ce phénomène tend à se fixer et à persister. Charcot démontra ainsi de façon impressionnante l'existence et l'activité de phénomènes inconscients, prouvant empiriquement que des réalités psychiques perdues pour la conscience (les idées fixes traumatiques) peuvent produire un effet inconscient, et plus encore parvenir à troubler profondément l'état de la conscience (comme justement par une paralysie).",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":5751,"children":5752},{},[5753],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5754,"children":5755},{},[5756,5758,5763],{"type":36,"value":5757},"Les démonstrations expérimentales de Charcot furent reprises, approfondies et élargies par ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5759,"children":5760},{},[5761],{"type":36,"value":5762},"Pierre Janet",{"type":36,"value":5764}," dont Jung suivit en 1902, pendant un semestre, les leçons à la Salpêtrière, avec une admiration et un intérêt durables. Janet a peut-être été le plus extraordinaire expérimentateur de la réalité psychique inconsciente. Un de ses mérites remarquables a été de saisir que l'hystérie ne fait qu'amplifier des données de la constitution psychique normale : ce dont il put déduire que les résultats des observations pathologiques concernent directement la constitution psychique « normale ». Au moyen d'un nombre infini d'observations, Janet démontra, avec la plus grande précision possible, l'extrême complexité de la réalité subconsciente : depuis le nombre infini d'activités automatiques plus ou moins isolées (« perceptions élémentaires », « associations d'idées », « habitudes », « souvenirs », « sentiments
32», « instincts », « idées fixes ») auxquelles des conditions déterminées, en particulier affectives, d'« abaissement du niveau mental », de « chute de la tension psychologique », permettent d'envahir la conscience en produisant des images, des tics, des mouvements divers, jusqu'à l'existence de plus vastes systèmes partiels, avec leur tendance à se former en des « groupes secondaires », en des formes dissociées d'existence avec des sensations, des images, des souvenirs et même un Moi, véritable « existence seconde » ou « double personnalité ».",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5766,"children":5767},{},[5768,5773],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5769,"children":5770},{},[5771],{"type":36,"value":5772},"En résumé.",{"type":36,"value":5774}," La psychanalyse française de la fin du XIXáµ siècle a opéré la révolution copernicienne nécessaire à la psychologie pour en faire une science en démontrant la réalité de l'inconscient par ses voies d'expression. Charcot a prouvé par l'expérimentation que des réalités psychiques perdues pour la conscience peuvent produire un effet inconscient et plus encore parvenir à troubler profondément l'état de la conscience. Le phénomène de la paralysie était en fait l'effet auto-suggestif de l'« idée d'impuissance motrice » agissant sur le corps dans l'état particulier de conscience obnubilée â et puisqu'une telle idée reste isolée et inaccessible au moi, puisque l'idée n'est pas consciente, cela permet au phénomène de se fixer et de persister tant que l'information auto-suggérée reste inconsciente.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5776,"children":5777},{},[5778,5780,5785],{"type":36,"value":5779},"Mais le problème de ce courant français c'est qu'ils étudiaient l'inconscient avec des ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5781,"children":5782},{},[5783],{"type":36,"value":5784},"a priori",{"type":36,"value":5786},". En effet la conception française du psychisme est toujours hiérarchisée, c'est-à -dire que le niveau mental y est toujours exprimé en termes d'« élévation » ou d'« abaissement » (pour utiliser les expressions de Janet) : l'« activité conservatrice », la « psyché automatique » inconsciente (pratiquement la plus affective) est toujours inférieure ; elle est toujours un amoindrissement de la fonction normale, toujours une « dépression mentale ». Ce préjugé négatif relatif à l'inconscient est tellement enraciné que jamais ni Charcot ni Janet ne semblent soupçonner une signification spécifique quelconque des phénomènes inconscients.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5788,"children":5789},{},[5790,5792,5796,5798,5803,5805,5810],{"type":36,"value":5791},"C'est indiscutablement ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5793,"children":5794},{},[5795],{"type":36,"value":5452},{"type":36,"value":5797}," qui a saisi le premier, d'une part, la réalité énergétique puissante et bouillonnante du chaudron pulsionnel et compris la qualité de douloureux conflit moral refoulé, inconscient et non résolu, exprimé par les symptômes névrotiques ; et qui, d'autre part, a saisi la réalité d'un ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5799,"children":5800},{},[5801],{"type":36,"value":5802},"langage",{"type":36,"value":5804}," des symptômes et compris et affirmé la nécessité thérapeutique d'apprendre à lire ce langage. En d'autres termes les manifestations de l'inconscient ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5806,"children":5807},{},[5808],{"type":36,"value":5809},"veulent dire quelque chose",{"type":36,"value":5811}," de relatif au sujet.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":5813,"children":5814},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":5816,"children":5818},{"id":5817},"ii-freud-contre-jung",[5819],{"type":36,"value":5820},"II\u002F Freud contre Jung",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5822,"children":5824},{"id":5823},"quest-ce-qui-constitue-linconscient",[5825],{"type":36,"value":5826},"Qu'est-ce qui constitue l'inconscient ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5828,"children":5829},{},[5830,5832,5837],{"type":36,"value":5831},"On ne peut savoir directement de quoi est fait l'inconscient. C'est là tout l'enjeu. Le but de l'analysant est de faire émerger à la conscience des conflits refoulés, de s'avouer à lui-même et de découvrir par là ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5833,"children":5834},{},[5835],{"type":36,"value":5836},"sa",{"type":36,"value":5838}," vérité de sujet du désir.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5840,"children":5841},{},[5842],{"type":36,"value":5843},"Les conflits entre Freud et Jung se font sur leurs méthodes d'accès aux contenus inconscients et sur les concepts analytiques qui permettent de traiter l'information reçue par l'inconscient.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5845,"children":5846},{},[5847],{"type":36,"value":5848},"L'inconscient, en tant que destin, se doit de s'exprimer quoi qu'il arrive. Il est aux fondements du sujet comme le seraient des fondations, cachées, enterrées, refoulées mais édifiantes. L'inconscient se doit d'exprimer son message et ce même au détriment du moi.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5850,"children":5852},{"id":5851},"la-topique-freudienne",[5853],{"type":36,"value":5854},"La topique freudienne",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5856,"children":5857},{},[5858],{"type":36,"value":5859},"Pour Freud l'inconscient est séparé en deux parties :",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5861,"children":5862},{},[5863,5868],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5864,"children":5865},{},[5866],{"type":36,"value":5867},"Le Surmoi",{"type":36,"value":5869}," représente une intériorisation des interdits parentaux, une puissance interdictrice dont le Moi est obligé de tenir compte. L'être humain subit, en effet, durant son enfance, une longue dépen
32dance qu'exprime le Surmoi. Le surmoi est cette voix en nous qui dit « il ne faut pas », une sorte de loi morale qui agit sur nous sans que l'on en comprenne l'origine.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5871,"children":5872},{},[5873,5878],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5874,"children":5875},{},[5876],{"type":36,"value":5877},"Le Ãa",{"type":36,"value":5879}," : « C'est la partie la plus obscure, la plus impénétrable de notre personnalité. Chaos, marmite pleine d'émotions bouillonnantes. Il s'emplit d'énergie, à partir des pulsions, mais sans témoigner d'aucune organisation, d'aucune volonté générale ; il tend seulement à satisfaire les besoins pulsionnels, en se conformant au principe de plaisir. Le ça ne connaît et ne supporte pas la contradiction. On n'y trouve aucun signe d'écoulement du temps. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5881,"children":5882},{},[5883],{"type":36,"value":5884},"Pour Freud, l'inconscient est alimenté par le refoulement. C'est-à -dire qu'il n'y a pas d'inconscient autre que l'inconscient personnel et individuel qui trouve ses racines dans la frustration sexuelle. La première frustration, qui est la frustration sexuelle, met en conflit le ça et le surmoi, et le lieu de bataille est le moi. On le voit : pour Freud il n'y a pas véritablement de Volonté, il n'y a qu'un ensemble chaotique de pulsions qui rentrent en contradiction avec un surmoi. Le moi ne fait que subir sa qualité d'être biologique et sexuel.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5886,"children":5887},{},[5888,5890,5895],{"type":36,"value":5889},"L'inconscient se nourrit des tabous, des non-dits, des pensées immorales, de tout ce qui est « mis sous la table » en quelque sorte. C'est le ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5891,"children":5892},{},[5893],{"type":36,"value":5894},"refoulement",{"type":36,"value":5896}," : un contenu passe du conscient à l'inconscient car cela dérange le conscient. Le problème étant qu'une fois dans l'inconscient, tous ces éléments peuvent influencer le moi de manière inconsciente.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5898,"children":5899},{},[5900,5905],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5901,"children":5902},{},[5903],{"type":36,"value":5904},"Exemple",{"type":36,"value":5906}," : je refoule le fait que j'ai voulu faire l'amour à ma mère et tuer mon père quand j'étais enfant. Cela me dérange, je souhaite l'oublier ou faire comme si cela n'existait pas car je ne l'identifie pas au moi. Pour Freud c'est alors le Surmoi et le Moi qui rentrent en compétition. Je vais au cinéma, bien après cette expérience, je vais voir un film où il y a une scène de rapport incestueux. Cela est l'occasion pour mon inconscient de s'exprimer à partir du contenu par lequel il a été alimenté. Je me mets par exemple à enchaîner des faux mouvements, des actes manqués, à dire des choses qui m'échappent et semblent me trahir sans que j'en aie l'intention. Freud dirait alors que la libido qui se manifeste à partir du ça est contrariée par le surmoi, et que cette contrariété s'exprime de fait à travers l'expérience du moi qui se retrouve au milieu d'un champ de bataille émotionnel.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5908,"children":5909},{},[5910],{"type":36,"value":5911},"La méthode freudienne est donc de comprendre les frustrations à partir de l'exploration biographique afin d'accéder au surmoi et d'étudier le ça par association d'idées.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5913,"children":5915},{"id":5914},"la-rupture-avec-jung",[5916],{"type":36,"value":5917},"La rupture avec Jung",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5919,"children":5920},{},[5921],{"type":36,"value":5922},"C'est là qu'il y a rupture avec Jung.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5924,"children":5925},{},[5926,5931],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5927,"children":5928},{},[5929],{"type":36,"value":5930},"Premièrement.",{"type":36,"value":5932}," L'association d'idées qui est faite par l'analysant ne peut lui permettre que d'associer des éléments conscients voire subconscients entre eux. Pire, l'association d'idées, puisqu'elle est faite directement par le sujet, peut lui permettre d'éviter le terrain trop encombrant de ce qui est trop difficile d'admettre en glissant sur le terrain d'interprétations moins pertinentes mais plus avouables.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5934,"children":5935},{},[5936,5941],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5937,"children":5938},{},[5939],{"type":36,"value":5940},"Deuxièmement.",{"type":36,"value":5942}," Freud prétend que la libido et la frustration sexuelle sont les seuls moteurs des pulsions humaines et que tout peut se réduire à cela. Pour Jung c'est une hérésie car il existe d'autres sortes de pulsions premières. Il s'agit de rendre à l'homme la possibilité de s'analyser sans se dégrader en un simple animal sexuel. Quand pour Freud la « réalité de l'âme » est morbide et trouble plus ou moins profondément le cours normal de la vie, pour Jung, l'inconscient est créateur et n'est ni malfaisant ni bienveillant, mais neutre, car instinctuel.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5944,"children":5945},{},[5946,5951,5953,5957],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5947,"children":5948},{},[5949],{"type":36,"value":5950},"Troisièmement.",{"type":36,"value":5952}," Freud nie l'existence d'un inconscient d'ordre collectif. Jung au contraire démontre qu'il est impossible qu'il n'y ait qu'un inconscient personnel. Dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5954,"children":5955},{},[5956],{"type":36,"value":5518},{"type":36,"value":5958}," Jung écrit qu'on a été amené à conclure avec Freud qu'avec suffisamment de travail, la production psychologique inconsciente se trouverait paralysée du fait que le refoulement, une fois supprimé, on pourrait éviter l'infiltration et l'abaissement de niveau de contenus conscients dans l'inconscient. Pourtant les faits le contredisent.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5960,"children":5961},{},[5962],{"type":36,"value":5963},"Jung en conclut donc qu'il existe un inconscient suprapersonnel.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":5965,"children":5967},{"id":5966},"quest-ce-que-linconscient-selon-jung",[5968],{"type":36,"value":5969},"Qu'est-ce que l'inconscient selon Jung ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5971,"children":5972},{},[5973,5975,5980,5982,5987],{"type":36,"value":5974},"L'inconscient pour Jung se divise en plusieurs sous-parties. Pour Jung il n'est pas pertinent de parler de « ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5976,"children":5977},{},[5978],{"type":36,"value":5979},"mon",{"type":36,"value":5981}," inconscient » puisque celui-ci contient une part collective. On parle donc de ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":5983,"children":5984},{},[5985],{"type":36,"value":5986},"l'inconscient",{"type":36,"value":5988}," tout simplement.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":5990,"children":5991},{},[5992,5994,5999,6001,6006],{"type":36,"value":5993},"Il y a deux sous-parties inconscientes : un ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":5995,"children":5996},{},[5997],{"type":36,"value":5998},"inconscient d'ordre personnel et biographique",{"type":36,"value":6000}," et un ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6002,"children":6003},{},[6004],{"type":36,"value":6005},"inconscient collectif",{"type":36,"value":6007},". Ces deux inconscients ne sont pas tout à fait séparés et se prolongent l'un l'autre dans une certaine continuité.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6009,"children":6010},{},[6011,6013,6018,6020,6025],{"type":36,"value":6012},"Au fondement de l'inconscient se trouve l'idée d'un ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6014,"children":6015},{},[6016],{"type":36,"value":6017},"inconscient cérébral",{"type":36,"value":6019},". Cela rejoint ce que nous avons vu dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6021,"children":6022},{},[6023],{"type":36,"value":6024},"Humain, trop humain",{"type":36,"value":6026}," de Nietzsche où celui-ci nous invite à penser que dans les premiers temps de l'humanité (avant la construction culturelle) on a pu avoir éveillé un état psychique comparable à celui du sommeil. Le rêve serait un état archaïque d'origine, témoin de ce passé.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6028,"children":6029},{},[6030,6032,6037,6039,6044,6046,6051,6053,6058],{"type":36,"value":6031},"De la même manière pour Jung il y a des structures innées et c'est ce qu'il appelle ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6033,"children":6034},{},[6035],{"type":36,"value":6036},"« Archétype »",{"type":36,"value":6038}," ou « images primordiales » en grec ancien. Le concept d'archétype est premier sur celui d'inconscient collectif. Dans le cours de ses recherches, Jung a en effet d'abord noté la récurrence de motifs ancestraux, partagés (avec des variations) à toutes les époques et dans toutes les civilisations, avant d'imaginer leur contenant, qu'il définit comme « ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6040,"children":6041},{},[6042],{"type":36,"value":6043},"le dépôt constitué par toute l'expérience ancestrale depuis des millions d'années, l'écho des événements de la préhistoire, et chaque siècle y ajoute une quantité infinitésimale de variation et de différenciation",{"type":36,"value":6045}," ». Avant d'utiliser le terme d'archétype, Jung utilise celui d'",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6047,"children":6048},{},[6049],{"type":36,"value":6050},"« imago »",{"type":36,"value":6052}," (ou d'« image inconsciente ») qui renvoie à la notion de trace mnésique (",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6054,"children":6055},{},[6056],{"type":36,"value":6057},"Erinnerungsspur",{"type":36,"value":6059},"), inscrite comme mémoire inconsciente. Les archétypes sont par conséquent, au début des travaux de Jung, des centres d'énergie, des formes innées conditionnant l'imaginaire humain, et dont l'ensemble forme l'inconscient collectif, sorte de mémoire universelle des comportements humains.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6061,"children":6062},{},[6063],{"type":36,"value":6064},"Ces structures sont le support de l'inconscient collectif qui a même, selon Jung, des fondements phylogénétiques voire biologiques. Pour résumer, l'inconscient collectif prend d'abord racine dans la « mémoire de forme » des structures cérébrales. Ensuite il existe une mémoire inconsciente ancestrale, primitive et universelle qu'il étudie notamment dans les mythes. C'est là l'un des points les plus intéressants de Jung : il explique que les mythes et les cosmogonies inventées par les civilisations diverses qui n'ont eu aucun contact dans le temps et dans l'espace ont des thèmes et des structures homologues et que celles-ci témoignent donc des constantes de l'inconscient collectif primitif. De ce fait Jung influence directement Claude Lévi-Strauss qui cherchera des universaux.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6066,"children":6067},{},[6068],{"type":36,"value":6069},"Ensuite Jung décrit ainsi plusieurs strates formant l'inconscient collectif :",{"type":31,"tag":1856,"props":6071,"children":6072},{},[6073,6085,6096,6107],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6074,"children":6075},{},[6076,6078,6083],{"type":36,"value":6077},"l'inconscient collectif ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6079,"children":6080},{},[6081],{"type":36,"value":6082},"familial",{"type":36,"value":6084}," ;",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6086,"children":6087},{},[6088,6090,6095],{"type":36,"value":6089},"l'inconscient collectif du ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6091,"children":6092},{},[6093],{"type":36,"value":6094},"groupe ethnique et culturel",{"type":36,"value":6084},{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6097,"children":6098},{},[6099,6100,6105],{"type":36,"value":6077},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6101,"children":6102},{},[6103],{"type":36,"value":6104},"primordial",{"type":36,"value":6106}," (où se trouve tout ce qui est commun à l'humanité comme la peur de l'obscurité et l'instinct de survie, constitué des archétypes et des instincts) ;",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6108,"children":6109},{},[6110,6112,6117,6119,6124],{"type":36,"value":6111},"puis l'",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6113,"children":6114},{},[6115],{"type":36,"value":6116},"inconscient personnel",{"type":36,"value":6118}," qui cette fois se rapproche de celui de Freud â ce que Jung appelle l'",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6120,"children":6121},{},[6122],{"type":36,"value":6123},"ombre",{"type":36,"value":1775},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6126,"children":6127},{},[6128,6130,6135],{"type":36,"value":6129},"Le reproche principal fait à la théorie jungienne est qu'elle décrirait un concept métaphysique aux fondements davantage philosophiques que psychologiques. David Tresan résume ainsi
32: « ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6131,"children":6132},{},[6133],{"type":36,"value":6134},"Bien qu'il évite lui-même toute affirmation ontologique, Jung peut sembler souvent laisser entendre que l'inconscient collectif serait une réalité métaphysique",{"type":36,"value":6136}," ». En 1925, Jung distingue en effet la psyché comme étant la réunion de deux dimensions. L'une est dite « subjective », contenant le Moi et ses archétypes comme l'anima, la persona et l'ombre ainsi que l'inconscient personnel ; l'autre est dite « objective ». Cette « réalité de l'âme » tranche totalement avec la conception freudienne : pour Jung, l'inconscient collectif est de nature objective, c'est-à -dire qu'il est naturel, inhérent à la réalité et pas seulement dépendant des perceptions et représentations du sujet ; il existe « en soi ». Dans l'inconscient collectif « existent contemporainement une expression et une absence de temps ». En son sein, le Moi se tient comme un observateur extérieur et il y accède par l'intégration progressive des archétypes.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6138,"children":6139},{},[6140,6142,6147,6149,6154],{"type":36,"value":6141},"Pour Jung cet inconscient collectif est moins constitué de contenu que de ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6143,"children":6144},{},[6145],{"type":36,"value":6146},"structures",{"type":36,"value":6148},". Une structure est un système de relations, un ensemble de rapports. Les structures déposées dans l'inconscient collectif sont les structures fondamentales que l'esprit humain mobilise pour penser le monde (intérieur et extérieur), le comprendre, le représenter. Ces structures déposées dans l'inconscient collectif, Jung les nomme : « archétypes ». Attention : un archétype, ce n'est donc pas une image (une image a toujours un contenu) : c'est, pourrait-on dire, la ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6150,"children":6151},{},[6152],{"type":36,"value":6153},"structure d'une image",{"type":36,"value":6155},", le système de rapports entre les éléments qui la composent. Pour comprendre cette idée (qui n'est pas facile) de Jung, on peut prendre son terrain d'application favori : l'ethnologie. Pour Jung, on retrouve dans les productions culturelles de groupes humains qui n'ont jamais été en rapport des analogies, c'est-à -dire des ressemblances de structure. Ainsi, on peut remarquer que des masques africains, des masques sud-asiatiques font apparaître des analogies flagrantes : les couleurs changent, ils ne renvoient pas aux mêmes dieux, ils n'ont pas le même sens, etc., mais ils possèdent une structure commune.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6157,"children":6158},{},[6159,6161],{"type":36,"value":6160},"Voilà donc : quand on parle d'archétype comme si c'était une sorte de mandala primitif signifiant une cosmologie de l'âme, on n'y est pas du tout. ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6162,"children":6163},{},[6164],{"type":36,"value":6165},"Jung n'est pas un mystique.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6167,"children":6168},{},[6169,6171,6176,6178,6183],{"type":36,"value":6170},"D'une autre manière Jung s'appuie sur l'anthropologie et l'étude des tribus dites primitives pour essayer de comprendre l'évolution de la psyché par rapport à l'inconscient. Jung élargit de la même manière le concept de Durkheim de « représentation collective » en le comprenant par rapport à l'inconscient. Les primitifs, d'un point de vue psychique, projettent sur le monde leurs propres représentations. C'est ce qu'il appelle la « ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6172,"children":6173},{},[6174],{"type":36,"value":6175},"participation mystique",{"type":36,"value":6177}," » et il la définit comme tel : « ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6179,"children":6180},{},[6181],{"type":36,"value":6182},"l'inconscient est projeté dans l'objet et l'objet introjecté dans le sujet, c'est-à -dire rendu psychologique",{"type":36,"value":6184}," ».",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6186,"children":6188},{"id":6187},"quelle-est-la-fonction-de-linconscient",[6189],{"type":36,"value":6190},"Quelle est la fonction de l'inconscient ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6192,"children":6193},{},[6194,6196,6200,6202,6207],{"type":36,"value":6195},"L'inconscient pour Jung a un but. Celui-ci s'exprime dans les interstices, dans les moments où le moi ne domine plus totalement sa réalité dans un monde d'habitudes. Il se doit de s'exprimer afin que le conscient se nourrisse de lui. Expression d'une volonté primitive, les signes laissés par l'inconscient sont dirigés vers le moi afin qu'il soit « plus lui-même » en quelque sorte. C'est à partir du travail de l'inconscient et des différentes manières qu'il a de s'exprimer que le sujet peut accéder à soi-même par un processus que Jung nomme l'",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6197,"children":6198},{},[6199],{"type":36,"value":5455},{"type":36,"value":6201},". Cela rejoint quelque peu les concepts philosophiques comme le ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6203,"children":6204},{},[6205],{"type":36,"value":6206},"conatus",{"type":36,"value":6208}," chez Spinoza qui, je le rappelle, ne se trouve jamais tout à fait et qui se cherche grâce à un travail d'éthique. L'inconscient est l'expression première de l'individu et dans cette acception on peut essayer de le rapprocher du conatus.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6210,"children":6211},{},[6212],{"type":36,"value":6213},"à partir de cela nous pouvons comprendre qu'il doit exister une méthode, une sorte d'éthique ou d'exercice qui permette au sujet d'accéder à cette plus grande conscience de soi.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6215,"children":6217},{"id":6216},"le-rêve-de-la-maison-jung-contre-freud",[6218],{"type":36,"value":6219},"Le rêve de la maison â Jung contre Freud",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6221,"children":6222},{},[6223,6225,6230],{"type":36,"value":6224},"Avant de passer à l'éthique jungienne, voici un passage autobiographique de Jung (",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6226,"children":6227},{},[6228],{"type":36,"value":6229},"Ma vie",{"type":36,"value":6231},") qui éclaire à la fois la différence entre les deux pensées, la méthode interprétative et l'ancrage historiographique de Jung :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6233,"children":6234},{},[6235],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6236,"children":6237},{},[6238],{"type":36,"value":6239},"« Je me trouvais dans une maison à deux étages, inconnue de moi. C'était \"ma\" maison. J'étais à l'étage supérieur. Une sorte de salle de séjour avec de beaux meubles de style rococo s'y trouvait. Aux murs, de précieux tableaux étaient suspendus. J'étais surpris que ce dût être ma maison et je pensais : \"Pas mal !\" Tout à coup me vint l'idée que je ne savais pas encore quel aspect avait l'étage inférieur. Je descendis l'escalier et arrivai au rez-de-chaussée. Là tout était plus ancien : cette partie de la maison datait du XVáµ ou XVIáµ siècle. L'installation était moyenâgeuse et les carrelages de briques rouges. Tout était dans la pénombre. J'allais d'une pièce dans une autre, me disant : je dois maintenant explorer la maison entière ! J'arr
32ivai à une lourde porte, je l'ouvris. Derrière je découvris un escalier de pierre conduisant à la cave. Je le descendis et arrivai dans une pièce très ancienne, magnifiquement voûtée. En examinant les murs je découvris qu'entre les pierres ordinaires du mur étaient des couches de briques, le mortier en contenant des débris. Je reconnus à cela que les murs dataient de l'époque romaine. Mon intérêt avait grandi au maximum. J'examinai aussi le sol recouvert de dalles. Dans l'une d'elles je découvris un anneau. Je le tirai : la dalle se souleva, là encore se trouvait un escalier fait d'étroites marches de pierre, qui conduisait dans la profondeur. Je le descendis et parvins dans une grotte rocheuse, basse. Dans l'épaisse poussière qui recouvrait le sol étaient des ossements, des débris de vases, sortes de vestiges d'une civilisation primitive. Je découvris deux crânes humains, probablement très vieux, à moitié désagrégés. â Puis je me réveillai. »",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6241,"children":6242},{},[6243],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6244,"children":6245},{},[6246,6248,6252,6254,6258],{"type":36,"value":6247},"« Ce qui intéressa surtout Freud dans ce rêve, c'étaient les deux crânes. Il en reparlait continuellement et me suggéra de découvrir en moi dans leur contexte un \"désir\" éventuel. [...] Naturellement je savais fort bien où il voulait en venir : de secrets désirs de mort y seraient cachés. [...] Quant à moi, il m'importait de découvrir le véritable sens du rêve. Il était clair que la maison représentait une sorte d'image de la psyché, autrement dit de ma situation consciente d'alors, avec des compléments encore inconscients. La conscience était caractérisée par la salle de séjour ; elle semblait pouvoir être habitée malgré son style vieillot. Au rez-de-chaussée, commençait déjà l'inconscient. Plus je descendais dans la profondeur, plus tout devenait étrange et obscur. Dans la grotte je découvris des restes d'une civilisation primitive, autrement dit le monde de l'homme primitif en moi ; ce monde ne pouvait guère être atteint ou éclairé par la conscience. [...] Par ce rêve, je soupçonnais pour la première fois l'existence d'un ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6249,"children":6250},{},[6251],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":6253}," collectif de la psyché personnelle, ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6255,"children":6256},{},[6257],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":6259}," que je considérai d'abord comme étant des vestiges de modes fonctionnels antérieurs. Ce n'est que plus tard, lorsque se multiplièrent mes expériences et que se consolida mon savoir, que je reconnus que ces modes fonctionnels étaient des formes de l'instinct, des archétypes. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6261,"children":6262},{},[6263],{"type":36,"value":6264},"Ce qui frappe ici c'est la dimension historiographique. Jung fait avec l'inconscient ce que Nietzsche fait avec le langage â et plus tard Foucault avec les institutions : une archéologie des strates de la conscience humaine.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6266,"children":6267},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":6269,"children":6271},{"id":6270},"iii-lélaboration-dune-éthique",[6272],{"type":36,"value":6273},"III\u002F L'élaboration d'une éthique",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6275,"children":6277},{"id":6276},"léthique-de-jung",[6278],{"type":36,"value":6279},"L'éthique de Jung",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6281,"children":6282},{},[6283,6285,6289],{"type":36,"value":6284},"à partir de la pensée jungienne s'élabore une véritable éthique, un exercice de rapport entre le sujet et ce qui l'entoure. Dans son rapport aux autres et dans son rapport au monde, le sujet phénoménologique (inspecteur de la réalité en tant qu'elle est un rapport entre des formes ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6286,"children":6287},{},[6288],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":6290},", ici l'inconscient, et des sensations extérieures) qui a appris les modes de fonctionnement de l'inconscient peut, à tout moment, porter son attention sur le monde qui semble s'offrir à lui et alors constater qu'il n'est pas face au monde comme un spectateur face à une pièce de théâtre mais qu'il est déjà , sans même le vouloir, sur scène, acteur des choses. « Nous ne sommes pas de simples spectateurs qui contempleraient les choses » dit Merleau-Ponty.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6292,"children":6293},{},[6294,6296,6301,6303,6307],{"type":36,"value":6295},"Si Merleau-Ponty élabore une phénoménologie de l'Esprit, Jung permet d'élaborer une ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6297,"children":6298},{},[6299],{"type":36,"value":6300},"phénoménologie de l'inconscient",{"type":36,"value":6302}," où les formes ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6304,"children":6305},{},[6306],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":6308}," qui forgent notre rapport émotionnel, moral et symbolique au monde sont construites par notre inconscient. Le sujet alors doit suivre des étapes dans son rapport au monde extérieur pour bien comprendre qu'il est impliqué moralement et émotionnellement dans toutes les rencontres qu'il fait. Devant une « scène », le sujet est malgré lui acteur comme lorsqu'il cherche à éviter certaines pensées qui rentreraient en contradiction avec ce qu'il s'imagine être lui. à cause d'une mauvaise identification du moi, à cause d'une méconnaissance de soi-même, et à cause de la tendance de l'esprit à ne pas supporter les contradictions quitte à se mentir à soi-même, il est fréquent qu'on
32se trompe et qu'ainsi on s'éloigne de la rencontre de son soi.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6310,"children":6312},{"id":6311},"rapprochement-avec-léthique-spinoziste",[6313],{"type":36,"value":6314},"Rapprochement avec l'éthique spinoziste",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6316,"children":6317},{},[6318],{"type":36,"value":6319},"On peut ici bien rapprocher l'éthique jungienne à l'éthique spinoziste. En effet pour Spinoza les hommes se croient libres au sens du libre-arbitre de Descartes non seulement parce qu'ils ignorent les causes (conditions) qui affectent leurs appétits et leurs désirs (conscients) mais aussi parce qu'ils s'en vantent : Spinoza critique le narcissisme de l'homme qui, afin de sauver son âme et son corps de la finitude, se croit un empire dans un empire, pour s'élever à la hauteur de l'image illusoire de leur dieu transcendant la nature. Or l'âme est l'idée, la plupart du temps confuse et ignorante, du corps.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6321,"children":6322},{},[6323,6325,6329,6331,6336,6337,6342],{"type":36,"value":6324},"La liberté de l'âme pour Spinoza est un mot vide de sens, sauf à exprimer une espérance creuse et impuissante. Notre seule réelle liberté c'est la libre nécessité désirante des appétits du corps et des désirs de l'âme qui les expriment ; elle passe par la connaissance de notre désir (",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6326,"children":6327},{},[6328],{"type":36,"value":6206},{"type":36,"value":6330},") et de ce qui l'affecte positivement et négativement dans la nature pour en accroître l'efficacité ; c'est-à -dire de notre essence agissante comme partie prenante de la ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6332,"children":6333},{},[6334],{"type":36,"value":6335},"natura naturata",{"type":36,"value":5250},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6338,"children":6339},{},[6340],{"type":36,"value":6341},"naturans",{"type":36,"value":6343}," dont la société elle-même fait partie, et par là , elle est puissance d'agir et joie. Elle ne choisit pas, si ce n'est entre la tristesse et la joie et ce choix n'en est pas un, car il est naturel.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6345,"children":6346},{},[6347,6349,6354],{"type":36,"value":6348},"On peut ici rapprocher cette « essence agissante » et le ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6350,"children":6351},{},[6352],{"type":36,"value":6353},"Soi",{"type":36,"value":6355}," de Jung qu'il décrit bien comme cette « personnalité plus ample ». On entend bien, derrière ces mots, la même idée que la liberté doit se faire en acte, par l'exercice, et que nous sommes victimes de pulsions inconscientes qui, lorsque nous ne voulons pas les voir, nous font croire à notre liberté absolue alors que celle-ci ne se loge que dans notre capacité à connaître la vérité de notre propre désir.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6357,"children":6358},{},[6359,6361,6365],{"type":36,"value":6360},"C'est là tout l'enjeu de l'éthique de Jung qu'il ne formule pas tel quel mais qui se comprend bien dans son livre ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6362,"children":6363},{},[6364],{"type":36,"value":5518},{"type":36,"value":1775},{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6367,"children":6369},{"id":6368},"le-chemin-de-lindividuation",[6370],{"type":36,"value":6371},"Le chemin de l'individuation",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6373,"children":6374},{},[6375],{"type":36,"value":6376},"Le processus d'individuation suit plusieurs étapes :",{"type":31,"tag":1856,"props":6378,"children":6379},{},[6380,6390,6400,6410],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6381,"children":6382},{},[6383,6388],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6384,"children":6385},{},[6386],{"type":36,"value":6387},"La mise à la conscience des traumas et des refoulements.",{"type":36,"value":6389}," Cela passe principalement par la parole mais peut être fait par d'autres modes d'expression. On peut ainsi imaginer que l'art puisse permettre de « sublimer » son traumatisme en le rendant habitable, comme la littérature transforme un souvenir en une métaphore ou une poésie.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6391,"children":6392},{},[6393,6398],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6394,"children":6395},{},[6396],{"type":36,"value":6397},"La synthèse du moi et de l'anima\u002Fanimus.",{"type":36,"value":6399}," L'individu doit apprendre à synthétiser son moi et son anima ou animus. Il faut surmonter l'anima en tant que complexe autonome et la transformer en une fonction de relation entre le conscient et l'inconscient. à partir de cela il sera plus simple de communiquer avec l'inconscient.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6401,"children":6402},{},[6403,6408],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6404,"children":6405},{},[6406],{"type":36,"value":6407},"La différenciation moi \u002F figures de l'inconscient.",{"type":36,"value":6409}," Il doit apprendre à différencier ce qui tient du moi et ce qui tient des figures de l'inconscient, faute de quoi il pourrait s'identifier à des contenus extérieurs.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6411,"children":6412},{},[6413,6418,6420,6425],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6414,"children":6415},{},[6416],{"type":36,"value":6417},"Le dépassement des personnalités mana.",{"type":36,"value":6419}," Une fois les identifications avec l'inconscient individuel passées, il faut apprendre à ne pas s'identifier à des archétypes d'ordre de l'inconscient collectif. C'est ce que Jung appelle les « ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6421,"children":6422},{},[6423],{"type":36,"value":6424},"personnalités mana",{"type":36,"value":6426}," » en référence à la puissance « mana » utilisée par les Mélanésiens. En effet, si on arrive à une synthèse d'avec notre « ombre » ou notre inconscient personnel, il peut arriver que le sujet s'identifie aux archétypes et se perde dans une forme d'inflation psychique.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6428,"children":6429},{},[6430],{"type":36,"value":6431},"Il faut bien comprendre que toute la force jungienne est de renverser les rapports de forces entre le moi et les autres et de faire voir au moi que tout ce qu'il nie fait partie de lui â plus il le nie, plus il le projette en dehors de lui, dans sa sphère sociale ou sur les autres. Et cela que ce soit à partir de l'inconscient personnel ou de l'inconscient collectif.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6433,"children":6435},{"id":6434},"la-synchronicité",[6436],{"type":36,"value":6437},"La synchronicité",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6439,"children":6440},{},[6441,6443,6448,6450,6455],{"type":36,"value":6442},"Jung nomme la « ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6444,"children":6445},{},[6446],{"type":36,"value":6447},"synchronicité",{"type":36,"value":6449}," » dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6451,"children":6452},{},[6453],{"type":36,"value":6454},"La synchronicité comme principe d'enchaînement a-causal",{"type":36,"value":6456}," (1952). Il dit que les phénomènes de synchronicité apparaissent quand deux chaînes causales se rencontrent dans un lieu et un temps donnés pour donner lieu à un phénomène qui tient lieu de hasard mais que ce hasard prend sens pour le sujet. Le fait de donner un sens à ce qui arrive devant lui permet au sujet de se rendre compte de certaines choses à des moments opportuns et de guérir.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6458,"children":6459},{},[6460,6464],{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6461,"children":6462},{},[6463],{"type":36,"value":5904},{"type":36,"value":6465}
32," : une patiente qui a tendance à trop rationaliser ce qui lui arrive, rendant ainsi son analyse inefficace. Un jour elle raconte un rêve à Jung dans lequel elle aperçoit un scarabée d'or. Au même moment elle entend un bruit à la fenêtre et Jung va ouvrir puis saisit l'insecte qui s'y trouve et le montre à la patiente en disant : « Le voilà votre scarabée ! » Le choc émotionnel ressenti par elle à cette vue eut alors pour effet de générer chez elle un déblocage mental qui aida grandement à la poursuite de sa thérapie. L'important ici n'est pas de savoir s'il y a une cause à ce phénomène a-causal mais bien de se rendre compte de l'intérêt thérapeutique de ce genre de rencontre. La rencontre de deux choses par hasard peut donner lieu à une prise de sens indépendante de la part du sujet qui lui permet de débloquer certaines situations.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6467,"children":6468},{},[6469,6471,6476,6478,6483],{"type":36,"value":6470},"Jung émet l'idée que l'inconscient a une nature « ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6472,"children":6473},{},[6474],{"type":36,"value":6475},"psychoïde",{"type":36,"value":6477}," », « comme l'âme » ou « quasi psychique ». L'inconscient collectif et les archétypes échappent ainsi à la représentation, au contraire des manifestations psychiques connues, et certains phénomènes limites laissent ainsi à penser que les matériaux collectifs, via une transgression des limites matière-psychique, peuvent prendre forme, comme dans les coïncidences, la télépathie ou les manifestations fantomatiques. Jung en vient à former un nouveau terme pour décrire cette réalité autre : l'",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6479,"children":6480},{},[6481],{"type":36,"value":6482},"« unus mundus »",{"type":36,"value":6484}," (en latin : l'« unité du monde »). Il s'agit du domaine où la conjonction du psychique et du physique a lieu, expliquant par conséquent que « tous les différents plans de l'existence sont liés ».",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6486,"children":6487},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":6489,"children":6490},{"id":2661},[6491],{"type":36,"value":2664},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6493,"children":6494},{},[6495,6497,6501],{"type":36,"value":6496},"à l'image de Merleau-Ponty qui cherche, en décrivant une piscine, à exprimer l'existence d'un fluide à travers la conjonction des formes ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6498,"children":6499},{},[6500],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":6502}," du sujet et du jeu objectif des reflets de la réalité, Jung nous apprend à intégrer, à digérer notre inconscient à partir de l'étude de notre rapport affectif et symbolique aux choses. Il opère un glissement central puisqu'il permet au sujet de rentrer en contact avec ce qui le nie tout en se nourrissant de ce qui lui est extérieur.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6504,"children":6505},{},[6506],{"type":36,"value":6507},"Il me semblait important de vous présenter Jung car :",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":6509,"children":6510},{},[6511,6516,6521],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6512,"children":6513},{},[6514],{"type":36,"value":6515},"D'une part cela a été le prétexte pour vous parler un peu d'inconscient et de vous donner des clés de compréhension en psychologie.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6517,"children":6518},{},[6519],{"type":36,"value":6520},"D'autre part il me semble que les deux matières que sont la psychologie et la sociologie ont beaucoup à apprendre l'une de l'autre et peuvent se nourrir l'une de l'autre sans pour autant se phagocyter ou rentrer en contradiction.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6522,"children":6523},{},[6524],{"type":36,"value":6525},"Enfin parce que Jung offre des explications à des phénomènes qui semblent soit incompréhensibles soit tenir lieu de la magie â comme la synchronicité ou la vision du monde des tribus animistes ou des psychoses comme la schizophrénie ou encore l'hypnose â et qu'il permet à ce titre de combattre les superstitions et les croyances.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6527,"children":6528},{},[6529],{"type":36,"value":6530},"Voilà pourquoi il me semble important de comprendre et de lire Jung car m
32ême si ses théories sont discutables et remises en question, elles apportent une clé de compréhension unique de la psyché humaine qui vient combler certaines faiblesses de la théorie freudienne. Et finalement sa pensée engendre une éthique qui, selon moi, apporte au sujet une réflexivité supplémentaire qui ne peut que lui être bénéfique.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6532,"children":6533},{},[6534],{"type":36,"value":6535},"Je terminerai avec une citation de Goethe qui prend là tout son sens â et c'est ma citation préférée :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6537,"children":6538},{},[6539],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6540,"children":6541},{},[6542],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6543,"children":6544},{},[6545],{"type":36,"value":6546},"De la force qui lie tous les êtres, ne se libère que l'être qui se surmonte lui-même.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6548,"children":6549},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":6551,"children":6553},{"id":6552},"notes-et-idées-complémentaires",[6554],{"type":36,"value":6555},"Notes et idées complémentaires",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":6557,"children":6558},{},[6559,6564,6569,6574,6579,6584],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6560,"children":6561},{},[6562],{"type":36,"value":6563},"Le ça, ce n'est pas moi. C'est un anonymat pulsionnel.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6565,"children":6566},{},[6567],{"type":36,"value":6568},"Le moi ne se confond pas avec le sujet conscient. Freud nous dit : « Moi, je ne suis pas ma conscience seulement, il y a quelque chose d'autre en moi qui n'est pas la conscience. »",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6570,"children":6571},{},[6572],{"type":36,"value":6573},"L'inconscient s'interprète comme un langage. Un certain nombre d'actions peuvent avoir des motivations inconscientes.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6575,"children":6576},{},[6577],{"type":36,"value":6578},"On devient soi-même non pas quand on repousse son destin mais quand on l'accomplit. La liberté consiste à épouser son destin.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6580,"children":6581},{},[6582],{"type":36,"value":6583},"Il ne faut pas penser que Freud dirait qu'il faut rendre conscient l'inconscient. On n'aura jamais épuisé le contenu de l'inconscient. Le refoulement structure le sujet. Sauf que le refoulement excessif provoque des excès comme l'hystérie. Il y a aussi des névroses sociales.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6585,"children":6586},{},[6587,6589,6594],{"type":36,"value":6588},"On pourrait interpréter l'instinct comme une sorte de mémoire. L'inconscient n'est que mémoire. On peut penser qu'elle est héritée, génétique. « C'est une étrange mémoire dont on ne se souvient pas. » ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6590,"children":6591},{},[6592],{"type":36,"value":6593},"La vie est mémoire",{"type":36,"value":6595}," â Bergson.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":6597},[6598,6599,6606,6614,6620,6621],{"id":4437,"depth":673,"text":4440},{"id":5585,"depth":673,"text":5588,"children":6600},[6601,6603,6604,6605],{"id":5591,"depth":2713,"text":6602},"L'inconscient : bullshit ou pas bullshit ?",{"id":5637,"depth":2713,"text":5640},{"id":5695,"depth":2713,"text":5698},{"id":5713,"depth":2713,"text":5716},{"id":5817,"depth":673,"text":5820,"children":6607},[6608,6609,6610,6611,6612,6613],{"id":5823,"depth":2713,"text":5826},{"id":5851,"depth":2713,"text":5854},{"id":5914,"depth":2713,"text":5917},{"id":5966,"depth":2713,"text":5969},{"id":6187,"depth":2713,"text":6190},{"id":6216,"depth":2713,"text":6219},{"id":6270,"depth":673,"text":6273,"children":6615},[6616,6617,6618,6619],{"id":6276,"depth":2713,"text":6279},{"id":6311,"depth":2713,"text":6314},{"id":6368,"depth":2713,"text":6371},{"id":6434,"depth":2713,"text":6437},{"id":2661,"depth":673,"text":2664},{"id":6552,"depth":673,"text":6555},"content:blog:Carl-Gustav-Jung.md","blog\u002FCarl-Gustav-Jung.md","blog\u002FCarl-Gustav-Jung",{"loc":5444},{"_path":6627,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":6628,"description":9,"subtitle":6629,"date":5447,"authors":15,"tags":6630,"section":2307,"contentStyle":4341,"draft":8,"body":6633,"_type":682,"_id":6764,"_source":684,"_file":6765,"_stem":6766,"_extension":687,"sitemap":6767},"\u002Fblog\u002Fcitations-that-i-love","Citations that I love","Une collection de pensées qui m'accompagnent",[6631,5449,6632],"citations","inspiration",{"type":28,"children":6634,"toc":6762},[6635,6653,6656,6675,6678,6695,6698,6715,6718,6735,6738],{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6636,"children":6637},{},[6638,6643],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6639,"children":6640},{},[6641],{"type":36,"value":6642},"« De la force qui lie tous les êtres, ne se libère que l'être qui se surmonte lui-même. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6644,"children":6645},{},[6646,6648],{"type":36,"value":6647},"â ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6649,"children":6650},{},[6651],{"type":36,"value":6652},"Goethe",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6654,"children":6655},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6657,"children":6658},{},[6659,6664],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6660,"children":6661},{},[6662],{"type":36,"value":6663},"« Les idées claires et distinctes doivent procéder d'idées obscures et confuses, car rien ne naît de rien et rien ne s'anéantit complètement. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6665,"children":6666},{},[6667,6668,6673],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6669,"children":6670},{},[6671],{"type":36,"value":6672},"Leibniz",{"type":36,"value":6674},", sur l'inconscient",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6676,"children":6677},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6679,"children":6680},{},[6681,6686],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6682,"children":6683},{},[6684],{"type":36,"value":6685},"« Il est dangereux de trop faire voir à l'homme combien il est égal aux bêtes, sans lui montrer sa grandeur. Il est encore dangereux de lui trop faire voir sa grandeur sans sa basse
32sse. Il est encore plus dangereux de lui laisser ignorer l'un et l'autre. Mais il est très avantageux de lui représenter l'un et l'autre. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6687,"children":6688},{},[6689,6690],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6691,"children":6692},{},[6693],{"type":36,"value":6694},"Pascal",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6696,"children":6697},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6699,"children":6700},{},[6701,6706],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6702,"children":6703},{},[6704],{"type":36,"value":6705},"« S'il y a un livre que vous voulez vraiment lire mais qui n'a pas encore été écrit, c'est à vous de l'écrire. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6707,"children":6708},{},[6709,6710],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6711,"children":6712},{},[6713],{"type":36,"value":6714},"Toni Morrison",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6716,"children":6717},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6719,"children":6720},{},[6721,6726],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6722,"children":6723},{},[6724],{"type":36,"value":6725},"« Ãchoue encore. Ãchoue mieux. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6727,"children":6728},{},[6729,6730],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6731,"children":6732},{},[6733],{"type":36,"value":6734},"Beckett",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6736,"children":6737},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6739,"children":6740},{},[6741,6753],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6742,"children":6743},{},[6744,6746,6751],{"type":36,"value":6745},"« ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":6747,"children":6748},{},[6749],{"type":36,"value":6750},"De te fabula narratur.",{"type":36,"value":6752}," » â « C'est de toi, lecteur, dont il est question dans le livre. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6754,"children":6755},{},[6756,6757],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6758,"children":6759},{},[6760],{"type":36,"value":6761},"Horace",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":6763},[],"content:blog:citations-that-i-love.md","blog\u002Fcitations-that-i-love.md","blog\u002Fcitations-that-i-love",{"loc":6627},{"_path":6769,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":6770,"description":9,"subtitle":6771,"date":5447,"authors":15,"tags":6772,"section":2307,"contentStyle":4341,"draft":8,"body":6778,"_type":682,"_id":7151,"_source":684,"_file":7152,"_stem":7153,"_extension":687,"sitemap":7154},"\u002Fblog\u002Fle-soi-une-hallucination-controlee","Le Soi, une hallucination contrôlée","De l'anesthésie à la conscience : sommes-nous les auteurs de notre réalité ?",[6773,6774,6775,5449,6776,6777],"conscience","perception","neurosciences","hallucination","intelligence artificielle",{"type":28,"children":6779,"toc":7130},[6780,6786,6791,6803,6806,6812,6817,6822,6843,6846,6852,6857,6863,6868,6874,6879,6885,6897,6903,6908,6914,6919,6930,6933,6939,6944,6949,7002,7007,7013,7018,7024,7043,7049,7054,7062,7067,7078,7083,7086,7092,7098,7103,7109,7119,7125],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":6781,"children":6783},{"id":6782},"introduction-la-magie-moderne-de-lanesthésie",[6784],{"type":36,"value":6785},"Introduction : la magie moderne de l'anesthésie",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6787,"children":6788},{},[6789],{"type":36,"value":6790},"L'anesthésie est une chose étrange. On vous endort. Votre perception du temps disparaît. Vous n'existez plus â pour vous-même. Puis on vous réveille, et vous redevenez quelqu'un. C'est une sorte de magie des temps modernes qui nous transforme en objet, puis à nouveau en personne. Entre les deux : rien. Pas de rêve, pas de durée, pas de soi. Ce qui pose immédiatement la question : qu'est-ce que la conscience ? Et cette question en entraîne d'autres â les animaux sont-ils conscients ? Les intelligences artificielles pourraient-elles l'être ?",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6792,"children":6793},{},[6794,6796,6801],{"type":36,"value":6795},"La conscience a moins à voir avec la pure intelligence â résoudre des problèmes et s'adapter â et plus à voir avec notre nature d'être vivant et respirant. ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6797,"children":6798},{},[6799],{"type":36,"value":6800},"Conscience et intelligence sont deux choses très différentes.",{"type":36,"value":6802}," Pas besoin d'être intelligent pour souffrir, mais besoin d'être vivant. Notre perception du monde et de nous-mêmes sont des sortes d'hallucinations contrôlées qui arr
32ivent par et à cause de nos corps vivants.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6804,"children":6805},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":6807,"children":6809},{"id":6808},"le-mystère-de-la-conscience",[6810],{"type":36,"value":6811},"Le mystère de la conscience",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6813,"children":6814},{},[6815],{"type":36,"value":6816},"On entend souvent qu'on ne sait rien sur les relations entre le cerveau et l'esprit, ou comment le cerveau et notre corps font émerger une conscience. Beaucoup pensent que la vie doit être plus que des mécanismes, qu'elle ne peut être expliquée par de simples interactions physico-chimiques. Mais le métabolisme, la reproduction cellulaire, l'homéostasie â tout cela s'explique par des réactions physico-chimiques en biologie. à partir de ces découvertes, on commence à arrêter de vouloir expliquer la vie à partir d'un élan vital ou d'une force de vie.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6818,"children":6819},{},[6820],{"type":36,"value":6821},"Le but de cet essai est de faire pareil avec la conscience. Expliquer les propriétés de la conscience et les comprendre scientifiquement. Deux dimensions :",{"type":31,"tag":1856,"props":6823,"children":6824},{},[6825,6835],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6826,"children":6827},{},[6828,6833],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6829,"children":6830},{},[6831],{"type":36,"value":6832},"L'expérience du monde autour de nous",{"type":36,"value":6834}," : les sens.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6836,"children":6837},{},[6838],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6839,"children":6840},{},[6841],{"type":36,"value":6842},"L'expérience de la conscience de soi.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6844,"children":6845},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":6847,"children":6849},{"id":6848},"_1-lexpérience-du-monde-nous-hallucinons-tout-le-temps",[6850],{"type":36,"value":6851},"1. L'expérience du monde : nous hallucinons tout le temps",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6853,"children":6854},{},[6855],{"type":36,"value":6856},"Le cerveau est indirectement relié au monde. Il ne sent pas les choses elles-mêmes. Il n'a pas accès aux choses elles-mêmes dans la boîte crânienne. Le cerveau est donc une sorte de processeur d'information qui travaille à combiner les signaux sensoriels avec ses propres attentes ou croyances sur ce que le monde se doit d'être. Nous ne percevons pas la lumière et le son objectivement. Ce que nous percevons est notre meilleure interprétation possible de ce qu'il y a là -dehors. Mais cela reste une interprétation.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6858,"children":6860},{"id":6859},"le-damier-dadelson",[6861],{"type":36,"value":6862},"Le damier d'Adelson",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6864,"children":6865},{},[6866],{"type":36,"value":6867},"Notre cerveau interprète ce qu'il voit par un processus profondément ancré dans notre cortex visuel : une ombre jetée sur une surface change son apparence. Nous voyons alors le damier plus clair qu'il ne l'est réellement. L'illusion est totale â et pourtant les cases sont objectivement de la même couleur.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6869,"children":6871},{"id":6870},"le-signal-étrange",[6872],{"type":36,"value":6873},"Le signal étrange",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6875,"children":6876},{},[6877],{"type":36,"value":6878},"Un signal sonore incompréhensible. Aucun sens. Puis on écoute une phrase claire. On réécoute le premier signal et, cette fois, on y discerne la phrase d'avant. Pourtant on reçoit le même signal. Ce qui a changé c'est la façon dont notre cerveau devine ce qu'il perçoit.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6880,"children":6882},{"id":6881},"la-perception-comme-génération-active",[6883],{"type":36,"value":6884},"La perception comme génération active",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6886,"children":6887},{},[6888,6890,6895],{"type":36,"value":6889},"Notre perception dépend donc d'un côté de ce qu'on perçoit â c'est-à -dire les signaux objectifs que nous recevons par nos sens (qui déjà peuvent être défectueux) â mais aussi et surtout de nos attentes et prédictions sur ce qu'on perçoit. ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6891,"children":6892},{},[6893],{"type":36,"value":6894},"Nous ne percevons pas le monde de façon passive. Nous le générons de façon active.",{"type":36,"value":6896}," La perception du monde vient autant, si ce n'est plus, de l'intérieur vers l'extérieur plutôt que de l'extérieur vers l'intérieur.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6898,"children":6900},{"id":6899},"deep-dream-de-google",[6901],{"type":36,"value":6902},"Deep Dream de Google",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6904,"children":6905},{},[6906],{"type":36,"value":6907},"Le traitement d'image par Deep Dream de Google simule les effets d'une trop forte prédiction sensorielle â c'est-à -dire quand il y a une trop forte interprétation sensorielle de l'expérience. Les attentes sont fortes. Ici, avec la volonté de voir des chiens partout. Quand les prédictions de perception sont trop fortes, le résultat ressemble beaucoup au genre d'hallucinations que rapportent les personnes en état de conscience altérée ou les psychotiques.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":6909,"children":6911},{"id":6910},"lhallucination-contrôlée",[6912],{"type":36,"value":6913},"L'hallucination contrôlée",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6915,"children":6916},{},[6917],{"type":36,"value":6918},"Si les hallucinations sont une sorte de perception incontrôlée, alors notre perception d'ici et maintenant est aussi une sorte d'hallucination. Mais une hallucination contrôlée â où les prédictions du cerveau sont contenues par l'information sensorielle du monde.",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":6920,"children":6921},{},[6922],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6923,"children":6924},{},[6925],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6926,"children":6927},{},[6928],{"type":36,"value":6929},"Nous hallucinons tout le temps. Simplement, quand nous sommes d'accord avec notre hallucination, nous l'appelons réalité.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":6931,"children":6932},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":6934,"children":6936},{"id":6935},"_2-lexpérience-de-soi-est-aussi-une-hallucination-contrôlée",[6937],{"type":36,"value":6938},"2. L'expérience de soi est aussi une hallucination contrôlée",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6940,"children":6941},{},[6942],{"type":36,"value":6943},"Pour la plupart d'entre nous, l'expérience d'être un soi est si familière, unifiée et continue qu'il semble difficile de ne pas la prendre pour acquise. Comme une évidence. Descartes. Mais nous ne devrions pas la prendre pour acquise.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":6945,"children":6946},{},[6947],{"type":36,"value":6948},"Il y a plusieurs façons de faire l'expérience d'être un soi :",{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":6950,"children":6951},{},[6952,6962,6972,6982,6992],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6953,"children":6954},{},[6955,6960],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6956,"children":6957},{},[6958],{"type":36,"value":6959},"L'expérience corporelle",{"type":36,"value":6961}," : avoir un corps, être un corps.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6963,"children":6964},{},[6965,6970],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6966,"children":6967},{},[6968],{"type":36,"value":6969},"L'expérience perceptive",{"type":36,"value":6971}," : la perspective à la première personne.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6973,"children":6974},{},[6975,6980],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6976,"children":6977},{},[6978],{"type":36,"value":6979},"L'expérience volitive",{"type":36,"value":6981}," : être la cause de choses qui se passent dans le monde.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6983,"children":6984},{},[6985,6990],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6986,"children":6987},{},[6988],{"type":36,"value":6989},"L'expérience narrative",{"type":36,"value":6991}
32," : être continu dans le temps.",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":6993,"children":6994},{},[6995,7000],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":6996,"children":6997},{},[6998],{"type":36,"value":6999},"L'expérience sociale",{"type":36,"value":7001}," : être distingué des autres.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7003,"children":7004},{},[7005],{"type":36,"value":7006},"Mais ces expériences fondamentales du soi peuvent se dégrader. Ãtre un soi unifié est plutôt une construction fragile au sein du cerveau.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7008,"children":7010},{"id":7009},"le-membre-fantôme",[7011],{"type":36,"value":7012},"Le membre fantôme",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7014,"children":7015},{},[7016],{"type":36,"value":7017},"Comment le cerveau fabrique-t-il son expérience corporelle ? L'expérience du membre fantôme montre que le cerveau identifie le membre fantôme comme son propre corps. Ce qui signifie que même notre perception du corps est une sorte de construction. Une sorte d'hallucination.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7019,"children":7021},{"id":7020},"extéroception-et-intéroception",[7022],{"type":36,"value":7023},"Extéroception et intéroception",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7025,"children":7026},{},[7027,7029,7034,7036,7041],{"type":36,"value":7028},"Nous percevons aussi notre corps de façon interne : la ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7030,"children":7031},{},[7032],{"type":36,"value":7033},"proprioception",{"type":36,"value":7035},". Des multitudes de signaux viennent tous les jours de nos organes internes â c'est l'",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7037,"children":7038},{},[7039],{"type":36,"value":7040},"intéroception",{"type":36,"value":7042},". Ces deux perceptions sont différentes. La perception de notre corps en tant que corps extérieur est différente de la perception de l'intérieur. à l'intérieur, l'enjeu est de garder les variables physiologiques constantes et en relation avec la survie.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7044,"children":7046},{"id":7045},"la-perception-comme-contrôle",[7047],{"type":36,"value":7048},"La perception comme contrôle",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7050,"children":7051},{},[7052],{"type":36,"value":7053},"Quand le cerveau utilise ses prédictions par rapport à la réalité pour comprendre comment est organisé ce qui lui est extérieur, nous avons l'habitude de percevoir les objets comme les causes de nos perceptions. Quand le cerveau utilise ses prédictions pour contrôler et réguler les choses (intéroception), nous faisons l'expérience d'à quel point notre cerveau les contrôle bien ou mal.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7055,"children":7056},{},[7057],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7058,"children":7059},{},[7060],{"type":36,"value":7061},"Donc notre plus primordiale expérience de soi â l'expérience d'être un organisme â est profondément inscrite dans nos mécanismes qui nous gardent vivants.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7063,"children":7064},{},[7065],{"type":36,"value":7066},"En suivant cette idée, on se rend compte que toutes nos perceptions du monde suivent cette conception première qui s'est construite à partir de nos fonctions biologiques pour garantir la survie de l'organisme. Ce que l'on voit consciemment dépend de notre cerveau et de sa faculté à interpréter le monde. Notre expérience du monde vient de l'intérieur vers l'extérieur et pas seulement de l'extérieur vers l'intérieur. L'illusion du membre fantôme nous prouve que ceci s'étend jusqu'à la perception de notre propre corps. De plus, ces interprétations reliées au soi dépendent particulièrement de signaux sensoriels qui viennent de l'intérieur du corps.",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7068,"children":7069},{},[7070],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7071,"children":7072},{},[7073],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7074,"children":7075},{},[7076],{"type":36,"value":7077},"L'expérience du soi est davantage en rapport avec le contrôle et la régulation d'un équilibre de soi à soi plutôt qu'une perception objective de ce qu'il y a en nous.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7079,"children":7080},{},[7081],{"type":36,"value":7082},"Notre perception a été façonnée par des années d'évolution. Nous nous prédictons dans nos existences. Nous nous projetons dans l'existence.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7084,"children":7085},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":7087,"children":7089},{"id":7088},"_3-trois-implications",[7090],{"type":36,"value":7091},"3. Trois implications",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7093,"children":7095},{"id":7094},"nous-pouvons-mal-nous-percevoir",[7096],{"type":36,"value":7097},"Nous pouvons mal nous percevoir",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7099,"children":7100},{},[7101],{"type":36,"value":7102},"Tout comme nous pouvons mal percevoir le monde, nous pouvons mal nous percevoir. Il faut alors comprendre les mécanismes de cela â et c'est le travail des neurosciences, de la psychologie, et peut-être aussi de la philosophie.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7104,"children":7106},{"id":7105},"lintelligence-artificielle-ne-sera-pas-consciente",[7107],{"type":36,"value":7108},"L'intelligence artificielle ne sera pas consciente",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7110,"children":7111},{},[7112,7114],{"type":36,"value":7113},"Ce que « être moi » veut dire ne peut pas se réduire à l'analogie avec un programme informatique â aussi sophistiqué et intelligent soit-il. Nous sommes des animaux biologiques, faits de viande et de sang, dont l'expérience consciente est modelée à tous les niveaux par les mécanismes biologiques qui nous animent. ",{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7115,"children":7116},{},[7117],{"type":36,"value":7118},"Fabriquer des ordinateurs plus intelligents ne les fera pas devenir conscients.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7120,"children":7122},{"id":7121},"la-conscience-humaine-nest-quune-façon-parmi-dautres",[7123],{"type":36,"value":7124}
32,"La conscience humaine n'est qu'une façon parmi d'autres",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7126,"children":7127},{},[7128],{"type":36,"value":7129},"Notre façon d'être conscient est simplement une façon parmi d'autres de devenir conscient. Et même la conscience de l'humain est différente de celle d'autres organismes. Nous faisons partie de la nature, nous ne venons pas de la nature. Quand la fin de la conscience arrive, nous n'avons rien à craindre.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":7131},[7132,7133,7134,7141,7146],{"id":6782,"depth":673,"text":6785},{"id":6808,"depth":673,"text":6811},{"id":6848,"depth":673,"text":6851,"children":7135},[7136,7137,7138,7139,7140],{"id":6859,"depth":2713,"text":6862},{"id":6870,"depth":2713,"text":6873},{"id":6881,"depth":2713,"text":6884},{"id":6899,"depth":2713,"text":6902},{"id":6910,"depth":2713,"text":6913},{"id":6935,"depth":673,"text":6938,"children":7142},[7143,7144,7145],{"id":7009,"depth":2713,"text":7012},{"id":7020,"depth":2713,"text":7023},{"id":7045,"depth":2713,"text":7048},{"id":7088,"depth":673,"text":7091,"children":7147},[7148,7149,7150],{"id":7094,"depth":2713,"text":7097},{"id":7105,"depth":2713,"text":7108},{"id":7121,"depth":2713,"text":7124},"content:blog:le-soi-une-hallucination-controlee.md","blog\u002Fle-soi-une-hallucination-controlee.md","blog\u002Fle-soi-une-hallucination-controlee",{"loc":6769},{"_path":7156,"_dir":7,"_draft":8,"_partial":8,"_locale":9,"title":7157,"description":7158,"date":7159,"section":2307,"contentStyle":4341,"summary":7160,"tags":7161,"draft":8,"body":7167,"_type":682,"_id":8420,"_source":684,"_file":8421,"_stem":8422,"_extension":687,"sitemap":8423},"\u002Fblog\u002Fde-quelle-realite-nos-perceptions-temoignent-elles","De quelle réalité nos perceptions témoignent-elles ?","Marcel Proust écrit dans Le Temps retrouvé : « Les choses, sitôt qu'elles sont perçues par nous, deviennent en nous quelque chose d'immatériel, de même nature que nos préoccupations ou nos sensations de ce temps-là , et se mêlent indissolublement à elles. » Proust exprime ici très bien ce que nous définissons comme une perception. Percevoir vient du latin percipere (de per, « à travers », et capere, « prendre, saisir, concevoir »). Percevoir, c'est donc saisir ou recueillir une information à travers les sens. La perception est ce flux d'information qui provient des sens. On peut percevoir de la chaleur, avoir la perception de son corps dans l'espace â la proprioception â, entendre, voir. Et en même temps, la perception ne se réduit pas à la sensation. La sensation, qui serait ce qui s'imprime dans le sens lui-même, n'agit pas seule dans notre compréhension du monde, puisque pour appréhender ce crayon, je le conçois en même temps que je le sens. Pour bien comprendre cette distinction, on peut prendre l'exemple des illusions d'optique. La sensation visuelle s'imprime dans ma rétine, mais cette sensation échappe toujours à la conscience du sujet, qui n'est liée à cette sensation que par la perception qu'elle en a : la perception que j'ai de l'illusion d'optique est un mouvement, alors que l'image sentie doit être fixe. C'est bien qu'il s'ajoute quelque chose qui est en nous, et c'est cette chose qui nous fait percevoir l'illusion d'optique comme mouvante.","2019-01-16","Exposé philosophique sur la perception et la réalité, de Descartes à Merleau-Ponty, en passant par Hume, Kant, Wittgenstein et Lacan.",[5449,6774,7162,7163,7164,7165,7166],"réalité","Descartes","Kant","Lacan","Merleau-Ponty",{"type":28,"children":7168,"toc":8402},[7169,7174,7177,7217,7229,7234,7239,7242,7248,7260,7265,7270,7278,7290,7295,7298,7304,7309,7314,7319,7324,7336,7351,7356,7364,7381,7389,7394,7397,7403,7408,7413,7443,7454,7466,7472,7477,7488,7493,7498,7503,7509,7514,7526,7534,7539,7547,7552,7558,7563,7568,7580,7585,7588,7592,7597,7619,7624,7627,7631,7785,7790,7793,7799,7802,7839,7851,7862,7865,7871,7883,7888,7893,7901,7912,7917,7920,7926,7931,7936,7941,7946,7957,7972,7977,7985,8002,8010,8015,8018,8024,8029,8034,8064,8075,8092,8098,8103,8114,8119,8124,8129,8135,8140,8152,8160,8165,8173,8178,8184,8189,8194,8206,8211,8214,8219,8224,8245,8256,8259,8265],{"type":31,"tag":705,"props":7170,"children":7172},{"id":7171},"de-quelle-réalité-nos-perceptions-témoignent-elles",[7173],{"type":36,"value":7157},{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7175,"children":7176},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7178,"children":7179},{},[7180,7182,7187,7189,7194,7196,7201,7203,7208,7210,7215],{"type":36,"value":7181},"Marcel Proust écrit dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7183,"children":7184},{},[7185],{"type":36,"value":7186},"Le Temps retrouvé",{"type":36,"value":7188}," : « Les choses, sitôt qu'elles sont perçues par nous, deviennent en nous quelque chose d'immatériel, de même nature que nos préoccupations ou nos sensations de ce temps-là , et se mêlent indissolublement à elles. » Proust exprime ici très bien ce que nous définissons comme une perception. ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7190,"children":7191},{},[7192],{"type":36,"value":7193},"Percevoir",{"type":36,"value":7195}," vient du latin ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7197,"children":7198},{},[7199],{"type":36,"value":7200},"percipere",{"type":36,"value":7202}," (de ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7204,"children":7205},{},[7206],{"type":36,"value":7207},"per",{"type":36,"value":7209},", « à travers », et ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7211,"children":7212},{},[7213],{"type":36,"value":7214},"capere",{"type":36,"value":7216},", « prendre, saisir, concevoir »). Percevoir, c'est donc saisir ou recueillir une information à travers les sens. La perception est ce flux d'information qui provient des sens. On peut percevoir de la chaleur, avoir la perception de son corps dans l'espace â la proprioception â, entendre, voir. Et en même temps, la perception ne se réduit pas à la sensation. La sensation, qui serait ce qui s'imprime dans le sens lui-même, n'agit pas seule dans notre compréhension du monde, puisque pour appréhender ce crayon, je le conçois en même temps que je le sens. Pour bien comprendre cette distinction, on peut prendre l'exemple des illusions d'optique. La sensation visuelle s'imprime dans ma rétine, mais cette sensation échappe toujours à la conscience du sujet, qui n'est liée à cette sensation que par la perception qu'elle en a : la perception que j'ai de l'illusion d'optique est un mouvement, alors que l'image sentie doit être fixe. C'est bien qu'il s'ajoute quelque chose qui est en nous, et c'est cette chose qui n
32ous fait percevoir l'illusion d'optique comme mouvante.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7218,"children":7219},{},[7220,7222,7227],{"type":36,"value":7221},"Un peu plus loin, Proust continue et écrit : « Ce que nous appelons la réalité est un certain rapport entre ces sensations et ces souvenirs qui nous entourent simultanément, rapport unique que l'écrivain doit retrouver pour en enchaîner à jamais dans sa phrase les deux termes différents. » Il compare même ce rapport au « rapport unique de la loi causale dans le monde de la science ». L'écrivain met ici le doigt sur quelque chose de particulièrement dérangeant. La réalité est un rapport et non un support. Proust, dans sa langue, dit plusieurs choses. Il utilise le mot « chose » ; il fait la distinction entre des choses perçues et un sujet qui perçoit. Les choses perçues deviennent quelque chose d'immatériel, et cette chose immatérielle est la perception, qui se mêle à notre nature. Pour Proust, il y a donc un sujet avec des préoccupations et des sensations, et des choses perçues qui deviennent des perceptions. Ce que la plupart des gens appellent réalité serait cet ensemble de choses perçues ou à percevoir. Or ce qu'affirme Proust est que ce que nous appelons réalité n'est que ce rapport entre sensations et souvenirs. La réalité est l'ensemble des perceptions, et c'est le langage qui seul peut sceller cette réalité pour la faire durer dans le temps â j'ajouterai même : pour la faire ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7223,"children":7224},{},[7225],{"type":36,"value":7226},"exister",{"type":36,"value":7228}," dans le temps. Mais avant d'en arriver là , il faut questionner ce rapport car, et le sujet le montre bien, lorsque nous parlons d'une réalité, celle-ci doit être unifiée pour être cohérente. Il ne peut y avoir la réalité du sujet d'un côté et la réalité de l'objet de l'autre ; les deux doivent vivre dans la même réalité. Il s'agit pour la philosophie d'étudier ce que nous venons de définir comme perception et d'en retirer des preuves de l'existence du sujet ou de l'objet. Et il semble que ce soit précisément pour cela qu'elle soit objet du discours. Mais avant de pouvoir affirmer cela, il faut bien comprendre ce qui tient du réel et ce qui tient du sujet. Alors seulement les perceptions pourront exprimer l'existence de l'un et de l'autre dans ce rapport. L'enjeu est de montrer qu'il existe quelque chose par les perceptions et que cette chose est unifiée.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7230,"children":7231},{},[7232],{"type":36,"value":7233},"De fait, nous percevons ; nous sommes des êtres sensoriels, des sujets qui répondons à des stimuli divers et variés, apparemment causés par le monde extérieur et portés par nos sens. La réalité serait alors un support à nos perceptions. On se rend compte que, de façon détournée, c'est cette conception même de réalité comme support que Descartes essaie de sauver par son solipsisme. En effet, s'il met d'abord en doute l'existence de cette réalité pour n'affirmer que celle du sujet, il en ressort ensuite que le sujet cartésien ne peut avoir en lui les facultés de la perception, et donc qu'il existe une réalité extérieure. Cependant, comme le montre Hume, Descartes a tenté de sauver l'existence de la réalité en tant que support mais n'a pas poussé son raisonnement à son comble : Hume montre qu'il ne peut y avoir de réalité comme support des perceptions si le sujet et les perceptions sont deux choses bien distinctes. Kant et ses successeurs reprendront cette idée forte et sauveront le concept de réalité en affirmant que celle-ci est l'ensemble des perceptions mêmes. Les perceptions semblent donc être les témoins, sinon les conditions mêmes de l'existence du rapport de soi au monde, et donc de l'existence d'un sujet et d'un objet.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7235,"children":7236},{},[7237],{"type":36,"value":7238},"Tout d'abord, il semble difficile de se représenter la distance qui existe entre ce sujet et l'objet. D'ailleurs, la plupart des théories soit nient l'existence d'un réel en s
32oi â tout ne serait alors que perception, seulement liée au sujet â, soit au contraire nient l'existence d'un moi séparé de son objet â le sujet ne serait donc qu'une illusion cachée derrière la matière. Nous verrons que l'un et l'autre â le solipsisme et le matérialisme â expriment la même chose : la tentative d'objectiver une réalité qui ne peut l'être. Elle n'est en fait qu'une construction. Il faut donc faire la nuance entre ces théories et celles qui ne nient pas l'existence d'un monde en soi, mais qui le considèrent hors champ, hors compréhension, hors expérience. Nous chercherons donc à réconcilier la réalité du sujet et du monde en passant par l'étude de nos perceptions.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7240,"children":7241},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":7243,"children":7245},{"id":7244},"i-la-réalité-comme-support-le-cul-de-sac-cartésien",[7246],{"type":36,"value":7247},"I. La réalité comme support : le cul-de-sac cartésien",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7249,"children":7250},{},[7251,7253,7258],{"type":36,"value":7252},"Dans cette première partie, nous verrons qu'en partant du principe, comme Descartes le fait dans ses ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7254,"children":7255},{},[7256],{"type":36,"value":7257},"Méditations",{"type":36,"value":7259},", qu'il existe un sujet qui a des perceptions â et qui n'est pas ces perceptions â et qu'il existe une réalité support de ces perceptions, on aboutit à un cul-de-sac intellectuel qui nie l'existence de cette réalité.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7261,"children":7262},{},[7263],{"type":36,"value":7264},"Descartes tente de sauver le concept de réalité support en même temps qu'il affirme que le sujet et la perception sont purement extérieurs l'un de l'autre. C'est là son erreur, et il tente de la cacher derrière l'idée de Dieu.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7266,"children":7267},{},[7268],{"type":36,"value":7269},"Il dit d'abord, dans la deuxième méditation, d'une cire d'abeille. Il fait la liste des sensations que cette cire lui procure. Puis, après l'avoir fait chauffer, il se rend compte qu'elle ne produit plus du tout les mêmes sensations, alors même qu'elle est toujours la même. En effet, ce que je désigne comme cire n'est pas réductible aux perceptions présentes que j'en ai. Il tente alors de révoquer en doute ses sensations ; il ne reste alors du morceau de cire que la conception même de corps : étendu, flexible, muable. Cela ne relève pas de mon imagination mais bien de ce qu'il appelle « la conception pure » ou l'entendement. Jusque-là , il semble que nous soyons d'accord avec cette expérience de pensée. Toute la question est de savoir si cette conception même du corps est conforme au corps objectif, à la réalité. C'est là qu'on n'est pas vraiment sûr de comprendre Descartes, car s'il dit d'abord que la conception de corps relève de l'entendement, il affirme ensuite, dans la sixième méditation, que la faculté active qui forme les choses perçues n'est pas dans le sujet â afin de sauver le statut de la réalité comme support des perceptions.",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7271,"children":7272},{},[7273],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7274,"children":7275},{},[7276],{"type":36,"value":7277},"« Je ne crois pas que les choses qu'il me semble que je sens en dormant procèdent de quelque objet hors de moi ; je ne voyais pas pourquoi je devais plutôt avoir cette créance pour les choses qu'il me semble que je sens étant éveillé. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7279,"children":7280},{},[7281,7283,7288],{"type":36,"value":7282},"D'abord, il rappelle : « Quoique les idées que je reçois par les sens ne dépendent point de ma volonté, je ne pensais pas devoir pour cela conclure qu'elles procédaient de choses différentes de moi, puisqu'elles peuvent être produites par une faculté en moi qui m'est inconnue. » Donc les perceptions ne prouvent pas l'existence d'une réalité support. Le fait de concevoir qu'il y ait des perceptions non séparées du sujet fait que ce que nous appelons réalité dans la vie courante est nié. Pour Descartes, cela ne semble pas concevable. Et parce qu'il voit le ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7284,"children":7285},{},[7286],{"type":36,"value":7287},"cogito ergo sum",{"type":36,"value":7289}," comme une évidence, une vérité vécue et non réfutable, il peut en conclure l'existence de la réalité. En effet, le sujet cartésien est pure pensée, pur doute, et n'a aucune substance, ne remplit aucun espace. Dans la perception, il y a une « faculté passive de sentir » qui appartient au monde des corps, des organes sensoriels. Et il y a une « faculté active de former et de produire les idées », c'est-à -dire les idées des sensations, c'est-à -dire les perceptions. Et il argumente ainsi
32: « Cette faculté active ne peut être en moi en tant que je ne suis qu'une chose qui pense. » Elle est donc en substance différente du sujet cartésien. Il en conclut qu'elle est un corps et que les choses corporelles existent. La réalité est sauvée.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7291,"children":7292},{},[7293],{"type":36,"value":7294},"Pour autant, en faisant cela, il affirme que la faculté active qui forme les choses perçues n'est pas dans le sujet, et donc que le sujet n'a aucune raison d'avoir un lien avec ses perceptions â à moins que Dieu l'ait voulu.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7296,"children":7297},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":7299,"children":7301},{"id":7300},"ii-le-sujet-cartésien-sexclut-de-la-réalité",[7302],{"type":36,"value":7303},"II. Le sujet cartésien s'exclut de la réalité",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7305,"children":7306},{},[7307],{"type":36,"value":7308},"Ainsi, dans une deuxième partie, nous nous appliquerons à montrer que le sujet cartésien s'exclut de la réalité. Il n'a aucun lien nécessaire avec les perceptions, encore moins avec les sensations, et d'autant moins avec le réel.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7310,"children":7311},{},[7312],{"type":36,"value":7313},"Si nous partons de la définition de la réalité en tant que support de nos perceptions, c'est-à -dire d'ensemble d'objets perçus et à percevoir en puissance, alors il n'y a pas de connexion nécessaire à cette réalité et nous ne pouvons rien affirmer sur elle. Aucune proposition la concernant n'est nécessaire, et donc affirmer sa réalité est illusoire.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7315,"children":7316},{},[7317],{"type":36,"value":7318},"En effet, comment penser la causalité entre l'âme et le corps ? Si la perception est extérieure au sujet, alors elle ne peut affecter l'âme d'elle-même ; elle n'est qu'une cause occasionnelle, comme l'affirme Malebranche. De même, si la sensation est une modification de l'âme, comment peut-elle être causée par une cause extérieure ? On ne peut qu'être étonné à chaque instant de percevoir, et ceci n'est possible que grâce à Dieu, par un processus de création continue. Pour Hume, cette causalité n'existe pas ; on ne peut l'affirmer. La causalité est une relation entre les idées que je ne conçois que par l'expérience, c'est-à -dire par induction. Ce ne peut donc être une connexion nécessaire entre les choses.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7320,"children":7321},{},[7322],{"type":36,"value":7323},"Ainsi, nous pouvons en conclure qu'il n'existe pas de connexion nécessaire entre la réalité d'un monde et l'existence d'un sujet. Les deux s'excluent, et ce ne peut être que par miracle qu'ils se rencontrent. Autrement, certaines conceptions philosophiques viendront à dire que le sujet est une illusion et qu'il n'a rien de réel : les seules choses dont nous pouvons affirmer la réalité sont les choses matérielles â c'est le matérialisme. Pour d'autres, seul ce que ressent le sujet est réel, et celui-ci est donc seul dans un solipsisme condamné à ne jamais pouvoir dire quoi que ce soit de vrai sur la réalité. Mais le solipsisme et le réalisme sont en fait deux faces d'une même pièce, car ils tentent tous deux d'affirmer l'objectivité d'une réalité.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7325,"children":7326},{},[7327,7329,7334],{"type":36,"value":7328},"Wittgenstein écrit dans le ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7330,"children":7331},{},[7332],{"type":36,"value":7333},"Tractatus",{"type":36,"value":7335}," :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7337,"children":7338},{},[7339],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7340,"children":7341},{},[7342,7344,7349],{"type":36,"value":7343},"« Le sujet qui pense ou développe des idées n'existe pas. Si j'écrivais un livre intitulé ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7345,"children":7346},{},[7347],{"type":36,"value":7348},"Le Monde tel que je l'ai trouvé",{"type":36,"value":7350},"... c'est la seule chose dont il ne saurait être question dans ce livre. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7352,"children":7353},{},[7354],{"type":36,"value":7355},"Et il enchaîne en expliquant :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7357,"children":7358},{},[7359],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7360,"children":7361},{},[7362],{"type":36,"value":7363},"« Le sujet n'appartient pas au monde, il constitue plutôt une limite du monde. Où trouverait-on un sujet métaphysique dans le monde ? Vous direz que l'Åil et le champ visuel sont exactement dans le même cas. Mais en vérité vous ne voyez pas l'Åil. Et rien dans le champ visuel ne vous autorise à déduire qu'il est vu par un Åil. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7365,"children":7366},{},[7367,7369,7373,7375,7379],{"type":36,"value":7368},"Ainsi, on peut affirmer que le sujet cartésien et le monde sont deux choses qui s'excluent. Wittgenstein est influencé ici par la manière typiquement humienne d'aborder la question du moi. Il écrit sous l'influence du scepticisme humien en matière de causalité et d'induction. De fait, nier qu'on puisse jamais trouver un sujet dans le monde, et conclure qu'un tel sujet n'existe pas, c'est être en plein accord avec Hume. Le seul signe de divergence par rapport à la conception humienne apparaît un peu après, lorsque Wittgenstein suggère que, finalement, parler de sujet est peut-être légitime, mais au sens d'une mystérieuse « limite » du monde, et non pas d'une entité qui en ferait partie. En effet, si aucune partie de mon expérience n'est en même temps ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7370,"children":7371},{},[7372],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":7374},", c'est-à -dire que le sujet n'a aucune faculté en lui d'appréhension du monde, alors tout ce que nous voyons pourrait aussi être autre. Donc tout ce que nous écrivons pourrait être autre ; donc il n'y a aucun ordre ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7376,"children":7377},{},[7378],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":7380}," des choses. Le sujet est une idée et non une évidence. à ce titre, le moi qui a des perceptions n'est en fait qu'une idée, et ce que je suis est ce que je perçois. Il n'existe donc que ce qui est perçu. Et c'est cela que nous pouvons appeler réalité. En cela, le solipsisme est un réalisme. Wittgenstein affirme finalement en 5.64 :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7382,"children":7383},{},[7384],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7385,"children":7386},{},[7387],{"type":36,"value":7388},"« Le solipsisme, développé en toute rigueur, coïncide avec le réalisme pur. Le je du solipsisme se réduit à un point sans extension, et il reste la réalité qui lui est coordonnée. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7390,"children":7391},{},[7392],{"type":36,"value":7393},"En s'opposant donc à la « rigueur » de Descartes, Wittgenstein affirme que pour qu'il y ait réalité, il nous faut comprendre que le sujet n'existe pas.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7395,"children":7396},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":7398,"children":7400},{"id":7399},"iii-la-réalité-comme-perception-de-kant-à -lacan",[7401],{"type":36,"value":7402},"III. La réalité comme perception : de Kant à Lacan",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7404,"children":7405},{},[7406],{"type":36,"value":7407},"Wittgenstein montre que le problème de Descartes est qu'il essaie d'étendre l'un dans l'autre deux faces d'une même pièce. En effet, le sujet et la réalité se définissent par la même ligne. Descartes ne veut pas réduire la notion de réalité à un sujet ou à un monde. Pour sauver la notion de réalité, il nous faut donc changer de système organisationnel et changer la définition de la réalité. Celle-ci ne peut être le support des perceptions du sujet.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7409,"children":7410},{},[7411],{"type":36,"value":7412},"Si le sujet cartésien n'a aucun lien avec les sensations et le réel, le sujet transcendantal, lui, a un lien avec les perceptions, et c'est ce qui permet à Kant d'affirmer que celui-ci a affaire à la réalité â la réalité des perceptions â, mais qu'il n'a pas affaire au réel des choses en soi.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7414,"children":7415},{},[7416,7418,7422,7424,7429,7431,7435,7437,7441],{"type":36,"value":7417},"Il existe en effet un autre moyen de penser la réalité : c'est de considérer avec Kant qu'il existe une forme donnée ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7419,"children":7420},{},[7421],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":7423}," dans le sujet transcendantal. Ainsi, dans la ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7425,"children":7426},{},[7427],{"type":36,"value":7428},"Critique de la raison pure",{"type":36,"value":7430},", au chapitre de l'esthétique transcendantale, Kant avance qu'il faut qu'il y ait certaines propositions ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7432,"children":7433},{},[7434],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":7436}," qui ne dérivent pas de l'expérience. Il faut qu'il y ait, dans l'expérience même, des éléments constitutifs du sujet. L'expérience peut ici être entendue comme synonyme de la perception, puisque nous l'avons définie comme ce flux d'information qui vient de l'extérieur et qui est pris dans des formes qui relèvent du sujet. Nous avons défini la perception comme ce rapport du sujet à l'objet. Il y a dans la perception des données des sens et des données du sujet. Ces données-là , appelées données transcendantales, sont des formes ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7438,"children":7439},{},[7440],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":7442}
32,". Ces formes sont l'espace et le temps. Ce sont les moules dans lesquels se comprennent, s'appréhendent, les sensations.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7444,"children":7445},{},[7446,7448,7452],{"type":36,"value":7447},"Par exemple, on peut se représenter les choses dans l'espace, l'espace seul, mais on ne peut penser des données en dehors de l'espace. En revanche, on peut vider l'espace des corps qui l'habitent : on atteint alors une forme ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7449,"children":7450},{},[7451],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":7453}," pure. L'espace est donc un prérequis, une condition formelle à l'appréhension du monde. Toute expérience ne peut se faire que dans l'espace et le temps. C'est en cela que le réel nous est à jamais étranger en tant que tel. Contrairement aux sceptiques qui déclarent que les perceptions jettent un voile sur la réalité et qu'on ne peut donc la connaître, Kant résiste et montre que, certes, les objets de connaissance sont des apparences, mais comme ce sont des apparences nécessaires, qui tiennent compte des formes du sujet transcendantal, ce sont donc ces apparences qui sont l'objet même de la connaissance humaine. Les choses en soi n'ont aucun intérêt. Mais peu importe, nous dit Kant, car la réalité n'est pas le réel ; la réalité est précisément dans les phénomènes perçus. La perception est la seule réalité objet de discours. C'est de là que s'est inventée la phénoménologie, l'étude des phénomènes.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7455,"children":7456},{},[7457,7459,7464],{"type":36,"value":7458},"Le sujet peut donc affirmer pouvoir parler de la réalité, car celle-ci est la perception. Mais il ne peut faire cela qu'en tant qu'il en parle justement. La réalité, si elle n'est pas dite, reste à l'état de flux perpétuellement changeant ; ce n'est donc pas ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7460,"children":7461},{},[7462],{"type":36,"value":7463},"une",{"type":36,"value":7465}," réalité unifiée.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7467,"children":7469},{"id":7468},"lacan-et-le-nouage-du-réel-de-limaginaire-et-du-symbolique",[7470],{"type":36,"value":7471},"Lacan et le nouage du réel, de l'imaginaire et du symbolique",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7473,"children":7474},{},[7475],{"type":36,"value":7476},"Lacan s'exprime après Kant, et on peut mettre en parallèle les deux pensées sur la réalité. Pour Lacan, le réel existe en soi et pour soi seulement, et il n'est pas objet de discours ni objet de connaissance. Ce qui importe est donc la phénoménologie, c'est-à -dire l'étude des phénomènes, c'est-à -dire l'étude de nos perceptions en tant que rapport entre sujet et objet.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7478,"children":7479},{},[7480,7482,7486],{"type":36,"value":7481},"Par exemple, lorsque je perçois un nuage, je suis convaincu que derrière la perception que j'ai de ce nuage il existe quelque chose qui émet de l'information, un réel, qu'on peut appeler, faute d'autres mots, la matière du nuage. Je perçois une forme, des couleurs, une structure, qui proviennent ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7483,"children":7484},{},[7485],{"type":36,"value":5293},{"type":36,"value":7487}," de ce réel. Pour autant, je n'ai aucune idée de ce que serait ce nuage en soi. Ce réel-là ne dit rien et on ne peut rien en dire. C'est d'ailleurs le propre de ce qui est réel : c'est quelque chose qui est en dehors de nos perceptions et qui ne signifie rien en soi et pour soi. Nos perceptions témoignent donc de l'existence du réel, de ce qui est, mais cette chose qui existe ne signifie rien, et il semble impossible d'en dire quoi que ce soit.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7489,"children":7490},{},[7491],{"type":36,"value":7492},"à l'inverse, l'information qui semble provenir de ce qui serait en soi le nuage est précisément ce que nous, en tant que sujet, appelons nuage. La réalité du nuage est la perception du nuage, c'est-à -dire une forme cotonneuse, une couleur grise, etc. Le sujet porte en lui les données qui donnent sa forme au nuage perçu. Ce nuage est donc constitutif de la réalité.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7494,"children":7495},{},[7496],{"type":36,"value":7497},"D'une autre manière, l'exemple du nuage est intéressant car c'est une chose qui fluctue dans le temps. Le fait de voir, derrière cet ensemble de sensations qui changent dans le temps, un seul et même nuage, est une construction. Le moi n'est pas le sujet, car le moi est une illusion unificatrice. Le fait que je perçoive un nuage que je considère unifié est le témoignage de l'unification du moi par l'illusion du « je ». Dire « je », pour Lacan, est une illusion, mais c'est une illusion nécessaire en tant qu'elle donne sa cohérence aux choses et donc à l'expérience. En fait, le nuage n'est jamais un ; c'est une construction formelle qui relève de l'hypothèse d'un je unifié. Mais cette hypothèse est essentielle à la survie de l'espèce. Autrement, moi et monde ne feraient plus qu'un et on ne pourrait se repérer dans le monde. La constitution du sujet et de l'objet va donc de pair et est ce qui divise le réel et ce qui unifie la réalité. La perception est bien le rapport du sujet à l'objet. Sans attention consciente, si le sujet ne porte pas devant lui un objet â car les deux sont nécessaires l'un à l'autre pour exister â, alors il n'y a pas de perception et il n'y a pas de réalité qui soit, car il n'y a pas de rapport. Il n'y a que du réel informe, indicible. La perception, pour être tout à fait unifiée et ne pas rester à l'état de flux constant perpétuellement changeant, doit faire l'objet d'un discours. Proust avait donc raison.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7499,"children":7500},{},[7501],{"type":36,"value":7502},"Pour Lacan, le discours est le lien qui vient broder ensemble, sans jamais les mélanger, le réel, l'imaginaire et le symbolique. C'est ce rapport qui constitue la réalité et son unification. Le langage, par le fait qu'il invente la notion de « je », invente le sujet et l'objet avec lui, et donc unifie la réalité dans leur rapport.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7504,"children":7506},{"id":7505},"lexpérience-mystique-et-les-limites-du-langage",[7507],{"type":36,"value":7508},"L'expérience mystique et les limites du langage",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7510,"children":7511},{},[7512],{"type":36,"value":7513},"à l'inverse, on peut imaginer qu'une expérience qui se fait en dehors du langage se vide petit à petit de son existence, et qu'une expérience en dehors de la réalité ne peut se dire ni se communiquer. Il n'y a donc pas d'autres réalités. Par exemple, la folie, les expérience
32s mystiques ou la prise de drogue, à mesure qu'elles coupent le rapport sujet\u002Fobjet, coupent la possibilité du langage. à mesure qu'on approche une expérience mystique, les formes perdent leurs contenances et leurs contenants avec. à mesure que l'espace et le temps se dissolvent, on ne peut que de moins en moins en parler. Et on ne peut que de moins en moins s'en rappeler comme d'une expérience consciente. On atteint alors peut-être quelque chose du Réel, mais c'est précisément pour cela que c'est une non-expérience, en tant que je ne peux pas l'inscrire dans le temps ni dans l'espace. C'est alors que la distance entre l'objet et le sujet s'abolit que le langage devient inopérant.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7515,"children":7516},{},[7517,7519,7524],{"type":36,"value":7518},"Ainsi, dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7520,"children":7521},{},[7522],{"type":36,"value":7523},"Les Portes de la perception",{"type":36,"value":7525},", Aldous Huxley livre son expérience avec la prise de cactus hallucinogène. Il écrit :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7527,"children":7528},{},[7529],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7530,"children":7531},{},[7532],{"type":36,"value":7533},"« L'espace était toujours là ; mais il avait perdu sa prédominance. L'esprit se préoccupait primordialement, non pas de mesures et de situations, mais d'être et de signification. Et l'indifférence en ce qui concerne l'espace était accompagnée d'une indifférence vraiment complète en ce qui concerne le temps. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7535,"children":7536},{},[7537],{"type":36,"value":7538},"On peut penser qu'à mesure qu'il perd la notion de temps et d'espace, il n'est plus capable de se penser comme sujet et de penser un objet, et donc qu'il n'est plus capable d'exprimer une expérience par le langage. Il plongerait dans ce qu'il appelle un « être pur » dont il ne pourrait rien dire. Plus loin, il tente de décrire ce qu'il se passe à mesure qu'il plonge dans cet état :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7540,"children":7541},{},[7542],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7543,"children":7544},{},[7545],{"type":36,"value":7546},"« Ce que je ne puis décrire autrement que la vision sacramentelle de la beauté. Je me retrouvais où j'avais été tandis que je regardais les fleurs â j'étais revenu dans un monde où tout brillait de la Lumière Intérieure et était infini dans sa signification. Les pieds, par exemple, de ce fauteuil â combien miraculeuse était leur tubularité, combien surnaturelle l'égalité polie de leur surface ! Je passai plusieurs minutes â ou fut-ce plusieurs siècles ? â non pas simplement à contempler ces pieds en bambou, mais à les être effectivement â ou plutôt à être moi-même en eux ; ou, pour être encore plus précis (car le \"moi\" n'était pas en cause dans cette affaire, non plus qu'en un certain sens, ils ne l'étaient, \"eux\") à être mon non-moi dans le non-moi qui était mon fauteuil. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7548,"children":7549},{},[7550],{"type":36,"value":7551},"Que dire sinon que cette expérience n'est pas communicable, et qu'elle se situe à la frontière d'avec la réalité.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":7553,"children":7555},{"id":7554},"la-chose-et-ses-qualités-merleau-ponty-et-sartre",[7556],{"type":36,"value":7557},"La chose et ses qualités : Merleau-Ponty et Sartre",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7559,"children":7560},{},[7561],{"type":36,"value":7562},"Mais si la réalité est perception, et si la perception est rapport du sujet à l'objet, alors les choses ne sont pas de simples objets neutres que nous contemplerions. Chaque chose est un système de qualités offertes aux différents sens. Pour la psychologie classique, ces qualités seraient réunies par un acte de synthèse intellectuel. Mais nous ne voyons pas avec cela qu'il nous semble que ce qui unit ces différentes qualités n'est pas un acte de synthèse intellectuel, mais qu'il y a une unité à la chose en elle-même.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7564,"children":7565},{},[7566],{"type":36,"value":7567},"La psychologie moderne a fait observer que chacune de ces qualités, loin d'être rigoureusement isolée, possède une signification affective qui la met en correspondance avec celles des autres sens. Chaque couleur dégage une sorte d'atmosphère morale qui la rend gaie, tonique... Et il en va de même pour les sons ou les données tactiles : on peut dire que chacune équivaut à un certain son ou à une certaine température. Et c'est ce qui fait que les aveugles, quand on leur parle de couleurs, parviennent à se les représenter par l'analogie d'un son, par exemple. à condition donc qu'on replace la qualité dans l'expérience humaine, le rapport qu'ont les qualités des choses entre elles commence à devenir compréhensible.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7569,"children":7570},{},[7571,7573,7578],{"type":36,"value":7572},"Sartre écrit dans ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7574,"children":7575},{},[7576],{"type":36,"value":7577},"L'Ãtre et le Néant",{"type":36,"value":7579}," : « Chaque qualité est révélatrice de l'être de l'objet. » Les différentes qualités que possède une chose ne sont pas simplement juxtaposées en elle, mais au contraire identiques en tant qu'elles manifestent toutes la mÃ
32ªme manière d'être. L'unité de la chose n'est pas derrière chacune de ses qualités ; elle est réaffirmée par chacune d'elles ; chacune d'elles est la chose entière. Le miel, par exemple, est un fluide ralenti : non seulement il se défait aussitôt qu'on l'a façonné, mais en plus c'est lui qui se saisit des mains de celui qui voulait le saisir. Le miel est sucré, or le sucré est, dans l'ordre de la saveur, cette même présence poisseuse que le visqueux réalise dans l'ordre du toucher. Dire que le miel est sucré et qu'il est mielleux sont deux manières de dire la même chose : un certain rapport de la chose à nous, une certaine manière qu'elle a de tirer, de fasciner. « Le miel est un certain comportement du monde entre mon corps et moi. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7581,"children":7582},{},[7583],{"type":36,"value":7584},"Les choses ne sont donc pas devant nous de simples objets neutres que nous contemplerions. Chacune d'elles symbolise pour nous une certaine conduite, nous la rappelle, provoque de notre part des réactions favorables ou défavorables. C'est pourquoi les goûts d'un homme, l'attitude qu'il a prise à l'égard du monde et de l'être extérieur, se lisent dans les objets dont il a choisi de s'entourer, dans les couleurs qu'il préfère, dans les lieux de promenade qu'il choisit. L'homme est investi dans les choses et les choses sont investies en lui. Pour parler comme le psychanalyste : les choses sont des complexes.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7586,"children":7587},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":7589,"children":7590},{"id":2661},[7591],{"type":36,"value":2664},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7593,"children":7594},{},[7595],{"type":36,"value":7596},"Pour conclure, on peut dire avec Merleau-Ponty :",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7598,"children":7599},{},[7600,7605],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7601,"children":7602},{},[7603],{"type":36,"value":7604},"« Il est temps de reconnaître dans le rapport entre l'homme et les choses non plus ce rapport de distance et de domination qui existe entre l'esprit souverain et le morceau de cire dans la célèbre analyse de Descartes, mais un rapport moins clair, une proximité vertigineuse. Cela nous empêche de nous définir comme pur esprit à part des choses, ou de définir les choses comme purs objets et sans aucuns attributs humains. »",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7606,"children":7607},{},[7608,7609,7613,7614],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7610,"children":7611},{},[7612],{"type":36,"value":7166},{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7615,"children":7616},{},[7617],{"type":36,"value":7618},"Causeries",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7620,"children":7621},{},[7622],{"type":36,"value":7623},"Nos perceptions ne témoignent ni d'un monde objectif qui serait le support inerte de nos sensations, ni d'un sujet souverain qui contemplerait ce monde à distance. Elles témoignent d'un rapport â ce rapport unique dont parlait Proust â entre un sujet incarné et un monde qui ne lui est jamais tout à fait étranger. La réalité n'est pas derrière les perceptions, comme un décor caché par un rideau ; elle est les perceptions mêmes, en tant qu'elles sont le lieu où sujet et objet se constituent mutuellement. Et c'est le langage, en inventant le « je » et en nommant les choses, qui scelle ce rapport et lui donne la consistance d'une réalité unifiée â une réalité dont on peut parler, et qui, par cet acte même de parole, accède à l'existence dans le temps.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7625,"children":7626},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":5368,"props":7628,"children":7629},{"id":4437},[7630],{"type":36,"value":4440},{"type":31,"tag":1790,"props":7632,"children":7633},{},[7634,7649,7665,7679,7694,7710,7726,7741,7755,7770],{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7635,"children":7636},{},[7637,7641,7642,7647],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7638,"children":7639},{},[7640],{"type":36,"value":7163},{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7643,"children":7644},{},[7645],{"type":36,"value":7646},"Méditations métaphysiques",{"type":36,"value":7648},", 1641",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7650,"children":7651},{},[7652,7657,7658,7663],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7653,"children":7654},{},[7655],{"type":36,"value":7656}
32,"Hume",{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7659,"children":7660},{},[7661],{"type":36,"value":7662},"Traité de la nature humaine",{"type":36,"value":7664},", 1739",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7666,"children":7667},{},[7668,7672,7673,7677],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7669,"children":7670},{},[7671],{"type":36,"value":7164},{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7674,"children":7675},{},[7676],{"type":36,"value":7428},{"type":36,"value":7678},", 1781",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7680,"children":7681},{},[7682,7687,7688,7692],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7683,"children":7684},{},[7685],{"type":36,"value":7686},"Proust",{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7689,"children":7690},{},[7691],{"type":36,"value":7186},{"type":36,"value":7693},", 1927",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7695,"children":7696},{},[7697,7702,7703,7708],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7698,"children":7699},{},[7700],{"type":36,"value":7701},"Wittgenstein",{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7704,"children":7705},{},[7706],{"type":36,"value":7707},"Tractatus logico-philosophicus",{"type":36,"value":7709},", 1921",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7711,"children":7712},{},[7713,7718,7719,7724],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7714,"children":7715},{},[7716],{"type":36,"value":7717},"Malebranche",{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7720,"children":7721},{},[7722],{"type":36,"value":7723},"De la recherche de la vérité",{"type":36,"value":7725},", 1674",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7727,"children":7728},{},[7729,7734,7735,7739],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7730,"children":7731},{},[7732],{"type":36,"value":7733},"Sartre",{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7736,"children":7737},{},[7738],{"type":36,"value":7577},{"type":36,"value":7740},", 1943",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7742,"children":7743},{},[7744,7748,7749,7753],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7745,"children":7746},{},[7747],{"type":36,"value":7166},{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7750,"children":7751},{},[7752],{"type":36,"value":7618},{"type":36,"value":7754},", 1948",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7756,"children":7757},{},[7758,7762,7763,7768],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7759,"children":7760},{},[7761],{"type":36,"value":7165},{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7764,"children":7765},{},[7766],{"type":36,"value":7767},"Ãcrits",{"type":36,"value":7769},", 1966",{"type":31,"tag":1794,"props":7771,"children":7772},{},[7773,7778,7779,7783],{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":7774,"children":7775},{},[7776],{"type":36,"value":7777},"Huxley",{"type":36,"value":2103},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7780,"children":7781},{},[7782],{"type":36,"value":7523},{"type":36,"value":7784},", 1954",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7786,"children":7787},{},[7788],{"type":36,"value":7789},"----- (tranlated in english using Claude sonnet 4.6)",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7791,"children":7792},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":705,"props":7794,"children":7796},{"id":7795},"of-what-reality-do-our-perceptions-bear-witness",[7797],{"type":36,"value":7798},"Of What Reality Do Our Perceptions Bear Witness?",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7800,"children":7801},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7803,"children":7804},{},[7805,7807,7812,7814,7819,7821,7825,7827,7831,7833,7837],{"type":36,"value":7806},"Marcel Proust writes in ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7808,"children":7809},{},[7810],{"type":36,"value":7811},"Time Regained",{"type":36,"value":7813},": \"Things, as soon as they are perceived by us, become within us something immaterial, of the same nature as our preoccupations or our sensations of that time, and mingle inextricably with them.\" Proust expresses here very well what we define as perception. ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7815,"children":7816},{},[7817],{"type":36,"value":7818},"To perceive",{"type":36,"value":7820}," comes from the Latin ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7822,"children":7823},{},[7824],{"type":36,"value":7200},{"type":36,"value":7826}," (from ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7828,"children":7829},{},[7830],{"type":36,"value":7207},{"type":36,"value":7832},", \"through,\" and ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7834,"children":7835},{},[7836],{"type":36,"value":7214},{"type":36,"value":7838},", \"to take, to grasp, to conceive\"). To perceive is therefore to seize or gather information through the senses. Perception is that flow of information which comes from the senses. One can perceive heat, have a perception of one's body in space â proprioception â, hear, see. And at the same time, perception cannot be reduced to sensation. Sensation, which is what imprints itself upon the sense organ itself, does not act alone in our understanding of the world, since in order to apprehend this pencil, I conceive of it at the same moment that I sense it. To properly grasp this distinction, one can take the example of optical illusions. The visual sensation imprints itself upon my retina, but this sensation always escapes the consciousness of the subject, who is connected to it only through the perception they have of it: the perception I have of the optical illusion
32is of movement, whereas the sensed image must be still. This means that something is added which is within us, and it is this something that causes us to perceive the optical illusion as moving.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7840,"children":7841},{},[7842,7844,7849],{"type":36,"value":7843},"A little further on, Proust continues: \"What we call reality is a certain relationship between those sensations and those memories which surround us simultaneously â a relationship that the writer must discover in order to link together, in his phrase, its two different terms forever.\" He even compares this relationship to \"the unique relationship of the law of causality in the world of science.\" The writer puts his finger here on something particularly unsettling. Reality is a relationship, not a substrate. Proust, in his language, says several things. He uses the word \"things\"; he draws a distinction between things perceived and a subject who perceives. Things perceived become something immaterial within us, and this immaterial thing is perception, which mingles with our nature. For Proust, there is therefore a subject with preoccupations and sensations, and things perceived which become perceptions. What most people call reality would be this ensemble of things perceived or yet to be perceived. But what Proust asserts is that what we call reality is merely this relationship between sensations and memories. Reality is the totality of perceptions, and it is language alone that can seal this reality and make it endure through time â I would add: make it ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7845,"children":7846},{},[7847],{"type":36,"value":7848},"exist",{"type":36,"value":7850}," through time. But before reaching that point, we must interrogate this relationship, because, as the subject clearly shows, when we speak of a reality, it must be unified in order to be coherent. There cannot be the reality of the subject on one side and the reality of the object on the other; the two must coexist within the same reality. It is philosophy's task to study what we have just defined as perception and to draw from it evidence of the existence of the subject or the object. And it seems to be precisely for this reason that it becomes an object of discourse. But before asserting this, one must first clearly understand what belongs to the real and what belongs to the subject. Only then can perceptions express the existence of both within this relationship. The challenge is to show that something exists through perceptions, and that this something is unified.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7852,"children":7853},{},[7854,7856,7860],{"type":36,"value":7855},"In fact, we perceive; we are sensory beings, subjects who respond to stimuli of all kinds, apparently caused by the external world and carried by our senses. Reality would then be a substrate for our perceptions. We realize that, in a roundabout way, it is precisely this conception of reality as substrate that Descartes attempts to preserve through his solipsism. Indeed, while he first doubts the existence of this reality in order to affirm only that of the subject, what emerges is that the Cartesian subject cannot possess within himself the faculties of perception, and therefore that an external reality must exist. Yet, as Hume demonstrates, Descartes attempted to rescue the existence of reality as substrate without pushing his reasoning to its logical conclusion: Hume shows that there can be no reality as substrate of perceptions if the subject and perceptions are two wholly distinct things. Kant and his successors would take up this powerful idea and rescue the concept of reality by affirming that it ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7857,"children":7858},{},[7859],{"type":36,"value":43},{"type":36,"value":7861}," the totality of perceptions themselves. Perceptions thus appear to be the witnesses â if not the very conditions â of the existence of the relationship between self and world, and therefore of the existence of both subject and object.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7863,"children":7864},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":7866,"children":7868},{"id":7867},"i-reality-as-substrate-the-cartesian-dead-end",[7869],{"type":36,"value":7870},"I. Reality as Substrate: The Cartesian Dead End",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7872,"children":7873},{},[7874,7876,7881],{"type":36,"value":7875},"In this first section, we will see that by starting from the premise, as Descartes does in his ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7877,"children":7878},{},[7879],{"type":36,"value":7880},"Meditations",{"type":36,"value":7882},", that there exists a subject who has perceptions â and who is not those perceptions â and that there exists a reality as substrate of those perceptions, one arrives at an intellectual dead end that negates the existence of this very reality.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7884,"children":7885},{},[7886],{"type":36,"value":7887},"Descartes attempts to preserve the concept of reality as substrate while simultaneously asserting that subject and perception are entirely external to one another. This is his error, and he attempts to conceal it behind the idea of God.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7889,"children":7890},{},[7891],{"type":36,"value":7892},"He begins, in the second meditation, with a piece of beeswax. He lists the sensations this wax produces in him. Then, after heating it, he realizes it produces entirely different sensations, even though it remains the same piece of wax. Indeed, what I designate as wax is not reducible to the present perceptions I have of it. He then attempts to revoke his sensations in doubt; all that remains of the piece of wax is the very concept of body: extended, flexible, mutable. This does not belong to the imagination but to what he calls \"pure conception\" or understanding. Up to this point, we seem to be in agreement with this thought experiment. The entire question is whether this very conception of body conforms to the objective body, to reality. This is where one is no longer entirely sure of understanding Descartes, for while he first says that the conception of body belongs to the understanding, he then asserts, in the sixth meditation, that the active faculty which forms perceived things does not reside in the subject â in order to preserve the status of reality as substrate of perceptions.",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7894,"children":7895},{},[7896],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7897,"children":7898},{},[7899],{"type":36,"value":7900},"\"I did not believe that I ought to doubt the things that seemed to me to be sensed during sleep... nor did I see why I should rather trust the things that seem to me to be sensed while awake.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7902,"children":7903},{},[7904,7906,7910],{"type":36,"value":7905},"First, he notes: \"Although the ideas which I receive through the senses do not depend upon my will, I did not think that I should therefore conclude that they proceeded from things different from myself, since perhaps there is a faculty in me, though hitherto unknown to me, which produces them.\" Thus perceptions do not prove the existence of a substrate reality. The fact of conceiving that there are perceptions not separate from the subject means that what we call reality in everyday life is negated. For Descartes, this seems inconceivable. And because he regards the ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7907,"children":7908},{},[7909],{"type":36,"value":7287},{"type":36,"value":7911}," as self-evident â a lived, irrefutable truth â he can conclude from it the existence of reality. Indeed, the Cartesian subject is pure thought, pure doubt, and has no substance and occupies no space. In perception, there is a \"passive faculty of sensing\" which belongs to the world of bodies, of sensory organs. And there is an \"active faculty of forming and producing ideas\" â that is, the ideas of sensations, that is, perceptions. He argues as follows: \"This active faculty cannot be in me in so far as I am only a thinking thing.\" It is therefore of a substance different from the Cartesian subject. He concludes that it is a body and that corporeal things exist. Reality is saved.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7913,"children":7914},{},[7915],{"type":36,"value":7916},"Yet in doing so, he asserts that the active faculty which forms perceived things is not in the subject, and therefore that the subject has no reason to have any connection to its perceptions â unless God willed it so.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":7918,"children":7919},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":7921,"children":7923},{"id":7922}
32,"ii-the-cartesian-subject-excludes-itself-from-reality",[7924],{"type":36,"value":7925},"II. The Cartesian Subject Excludes Itself from Reality",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7927,"children":7928},{},[7929],{"type":36,"value":7930},"Thus, in a second section, we will apply ourselves to showing that the Cartesian subject excludes itself from reality. It has no necessary connection to perceptions, still less to sensations, and even less to the real.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7932,"children":7933},{},[7934],{"type":36,"value":7935},"If we begin from the definition of reality as the substrate of our perceptions â that is, as the ensemble of objects perceived and potentially perceivable â then there is no necessary connection to this reality and we can affirm nothing about it. No proposition concerning it is necessary, and therefore to affirm its reality is illusory.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7937,"children":7938},{},[7939],{"type":36,"value":7940},"Indeed, how is one to think the causality between soul and body? If perception is external to the subject, then it cannot affect the soul of itself; it is only an occasional cause, as Malebranche affirms. Likewise, if sensation is a modification of the soul, how can it be caused by an external cause? One can only be astonished at every moment to perceive at all, and this is only possible through God, by a process of continuous creation. For Hume, this causality does not exist; one cannot assert it. Causality is a relation between ideas that I conceive only through experience â that is, through induction. It therefore cannot be a necessary connection between things.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7942,"children":7943},{},[7944],{"type":36,"value":7945},"We can thus conclude that there is no necessary connection between the reality of a world and the existence of a subject. The two exclude each other, and it can only be by miracle that they meet. Otherwise, certain philosophical conceptions will come to say that the subject is an illusion and has nothing real about it: the only things of which we can affirm the reality are material things â this is materialism. For others, only what the subject feels is real, and the subject is therefore alone in a solipsism condemned never to be able to say anything true about reality. But solipsism and realism are in fact two sides of the same coin, for they both attempt to affirm the objectivity of a reality.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7947,"children":7948},{},[7949,7951,7955],{"type":36,"value":7950},"Wittgenstein writes in the ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7952,"children":7953},{},[7954],{"type":36,"value":7333},{"type":36,"value":7956},":",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7958,"children":7959},{},[7960],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7961,"children":7962},{},[7963,7965,7970],{"type":36,"value":7964},"\"The thinking, presenting subject; there is no such thing. If I wrote a book called ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7966,"children":7967},{},[7968],{"type":36,"value":7969},"The World as I Found It",{"type":36,"value":7971},"... the self would not be mentioned in it.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7973,"children":7974},{},[7975],{"type":36,"value":7976},"And he continues by explaining:",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":7978,"children":7979},{},[7980],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7981,"children":7982},{},[7983],{"type":36,"value":7984},"\"The subject does not belong to the world; rather it is a limit of the world. Where in the world is a metaphysical subject to be found? You will say that this is exactly like the case of the eye and the visual field. But really you do not see the eye. And nothing in the visual field allows you to infer that it is seen by an eye.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":7986,"children":7987},{},[7988,7990,7994,7996,8000],{"type":36,"value":7989},"Thus one can affirm that the Cartesian subject and the world are two things that exclude each other. Wittgenstein is influenced here by the typically Humean approach to the question of the self. He writes under the influence of Humean scepticism regarding causality and induction. Indeed, to deny that a subject can ever be found in the world, and to conclude that no such subject exists, is to be in full agreement with Hume. The only sign of divergence from the Humean conception appears a little further on, when Wittgenstein suggests that, after all, speaking of a subject may be legitimate, but in the sense of a mysterious \"limit\" of the world, not as an entity that forms part of it. For if no part of my experience is at the same time ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7991,"children":7992},{},[7993],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":7995}," â that is, if the subject has no faculty within him for apprehending the world â then everything we see could equally be otherwise. Therefore everything we write could be otherwise; therefore there is no ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":7997,"children":7998},{},[7999],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":8001}," order of things. The subject is an idea and not a self-evidence. As such, the self that has perceptions is in fact merely an idea, and what I am is what I perceive. There exists, therefore, only what is perceived. And this is what we can call reality. In this sense, solipsism is a realism. Wittgenstein ultimately asserts at 5.64:",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":8003,"children":8004},{},[8005],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8006,"children":8007},{},[8008],{"type":36,"value":8009},"\"Here it can be seen that solipsism, when its implications are followed out strictly, coincides with pure realism. The self of solipsism shrinks to a point without extension, and there remains the reality coordinated with it.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8011,"children":8012},{},[8013],{"type":36,"value":8014},"By opposing himself to Descartes' \"rigour,\" Wittgenstein affirms that for there to be reality, we must understand that the subject does not exist.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":8016,"children":8017},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":8019,"children":8021},{"id":8020},"iii-reality-as-perception-from-kant-to-lacan",[8022],{"type":36,"value":8023},"III. Reality as Perception: From Kant to Lacan",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8025,"children":8026},{},[8027],{"type":36,"value":8028},"Wittgenstein shows that Descartes' problem is that he attempts to extend into one another two faces of the same coin. Indeed, subject and reality are defined by the same line. Descartes does not wish to reduce the notion of reality either to a subject or to a world. To preserve the notion of reality, we must therefore change our organizational framework and change the definition of reality itself. Reality cannot be the substrate of the subject's perceptions.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8030,"children":8031},{},[8032],{"type":36,"value":8033},"If the Cartesian subject has no connection to sensations and the real, the transcendental subject, by contrast, does have a connection to perceptions, and it is this that allows Kant to affirm that it is engaged with reality â the reality of perceptions â but not with the real of things in themselves.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8035,"children":8036},{},[8037,8039,8043,8045,8050,8052,8056,8058,8062],{"type":36,"value":8038},"There is indeed another way of thinking reality: to consider with Kant that there exists a form given ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8040,"children":8041},{},[8042],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":8044}," within the transcendental subject. Thus, in the ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8046,"children":8047},{},[8048],{"type":36,"value":8049},"Critique of Pure Reason",{"type":36,"value":8051},", in the chapter on transcendental aesthetics, Kant advances that there must be certain ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8053,"children":8054},{},[8055],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":8057}," propositions which do not derive from experience. There must be, within experience itself, elements that are constitutive of the subject. Experience can here be understood as synonymous with perception, since we have defined it as that flow of information which comes from the outside and is received within forms that belong to the subject. We have defined perception as this relationship between subject and object. In perception there are data from the senses and data from the subject. These latter data, called transcendental data, are ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8059,"children":8060},{},[8061],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":8063}," forms. These forms are space and time. They are the moulds within which sensations are understood and apprehended.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8065,"children":8066},{}
32,[8067,8069,8073],{"type":36,"value":8068},"For example, one can represent things in space, space alone, but one cannot think any data outside of space. One can, however, empty space of the bodies that inhabit it: one then reaches a pure ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8070,"children":8071},{},[8072],{"type":36,"value":5784},{"type":36,"value":8074}," form. Space is therefore a prerequisite, a formal condition for the apprehension of the world. All experience can only take place in space and time. It is in this sense that the real is forever foreign to us as such. Unlike the sceptics who declare that perceptions cast a veil over reality and that it can therefore never be known, Kant resists and shows that, yes, the objects of knowledge are appearances, but since these are necessary appearances â which take account of the forms of the transcendental subject â it is these appearances that are the very objects of human knowledge. Things in themselves hold no interest. But no matter, Kant tells us, for reality is not the real; reality is precisely in the perceived phenomena. Perception is the only reality that can be the object of discourse. It is from this point that phenomenology â the study of phenomena â was born.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8076,"children":8077},{},[8078,8080,8084,8086,8090],{"type":36,"value":8079},"The subject can therefore claim to be able to speak of reality, since reality ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8081,"children":8082},{},[8083],{"type":36,"value":43},{"type":36,"value":8085}," perception. But it can only do so insofar as it speaks of it at all. Reality, if it is left unsaid, remains in a state of perpetually changing flux; it is therefore not ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8087,"children":8088},{},[8089],{"type":36,"value":2201},{"type":36,"value":8091}," unified reality.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":8093,"children":8095},{"id":8094},"lacan-and-the-knotting-of-the-real-the-imaginary-and-the-symbolic",[8096],{"type":36,"value":8097},"Lacan and the Knotting of the Real, the Imaginary, and the Symbolic",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8099,"children":8100},{},[8101],{"type":36,"value":8102},"Lacan writes after Kant, and the two thinkers' ideas on reality can be placed in parallel. For Lacan, the real exists in and for itself only, and it is not an object of discourse or of knowledge. What matters is therefore phenomenology â the study of phenomena, of our perceptions insofar as they are a relationship between subject and object.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8104,"children":8105},{},[8106,8108,8112],{"type":36,"value":8107},"For example, when I perceive a cloud, I am convinced that behind the perception I have of this cloud there exists something emitting information, a real, which one can call â for want of other words â the matter of the cloud. I perceive a shape, colours, a structure, which derive ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8109,"children":8110},{},[8111],{"type":36,"value":5293},{"type":36,"value":8113}," from this real. Yet I have no idea what this cloud would be in itself. This real says nothing and nothing can be said of it. This is indeed the hallmark of what is real: it is something that lies outside our perceptions and signifies nothing in itself and for itself. Our perceptions thus bear witness to the existence of the real, of what is, but this thing which exists means nothing, and it seems impossible to say anything of it whatsoever.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8115,"children":8116},{},[8117],{"type":36,"value":8118},"Conversely, the information that seems to come from what would be in itself the cloud is precisely what we, as subjects, call cloud. The reality of the cloud is the perception of the cloud â that is, a cottony shape, a grey colour, and so on. The subject carries within himself the data that give form to the perceived cloud. This cloud is therefore constitutive of reality.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8120,"children":8121},{},[8122],{"type":36,"value":8123},"In another way, the example of the cloud is interesting because it is something that fluctuates through time. The fact of seeing, behind this ensemble of sensations that change over time, one and the same cloud, is a construction. The ego is not the subject, for the ego is a unifying illusion. The fact that I perceive a cloud which I consider unified is testimony to the unification of the ego through the illusion of the \"I.\" To say \"I,\" for Lacan, is an illusion, but it is a necessary illusion
32insofar as it gives coherence to things and therefore to experience. In fact, the cloud is never one; it is a formal construction belonging to the hypothesis of a unified \"I.\" But this hypothesis is essential to the survival of the species. Otherwise, self and world would merge into one and we would no longer be able to find our bearings in the world. The constitution of subject and object thus go hand in hand and it is what divides the real and unifies reality. Perception is indeed the relationship between subject and object. Without conscious attention â if the subject does not hold an object before itself, since the two are necessary to one another's existence â there is no perception, and there is no reality that is, because there is no relationship. There is only formless, unspeakable real. For perception to be fully unified and not remain in a state of constantly shifting flux, it must become the object of discourse. Proust was therefore right.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8125,"children":8126},{},[8127],{"type":36,"value":8128},"For Lacan, discourse is the link that comes to weave together â without ever confusing â the real, the imaginary, and the symbolic. It is this relationship that constitutes reality and its unification. Language, by inventing the notion of \"I,\" invents subject and object along with it, and thereby unifies reality in their relationship.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":8130,"children":8132},{"id":8131},"the-mystical-experience-and-the-limits-of-language",[8133],{"type":36,"value":8134},"The Mystical Experience and the Limits of Language",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8136,"children":8137},{},[8138],{"type":36,"value":8139},"Conversely, one can imagine that an experience which takes place outside of language gradually empties itself of its existence, and that an experience outside of reality can be neither spoken nor communicated. There are therefore no other realities. For instance, madness, mystical experiences, or the taking of drugs â insofar as they sever the subject\u002Fobject relationship â sever the possibility of language. As one approaches a mystical experience, forms lose their contours and their containers along with them. As space and time dissolve, one becomes increasingly unable to speak of the experience. One becomes increasingly unable to recall it as a conscious experience. One perhaps reaches something of the Real â but it is precisely for this reason that it is a non-experience, insofar as I cannot inscribe it in time or space. It is when the distance between object and subject is abolished that language becomes inoperative.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8141,"children":8142},{},[8143,8145,8150],{"type":36,"value":8144},"Thus, in ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8146,"children":8147},{},[8148],{"type":36,"value":8149},"The Doors of Perception",{"type":36,"value":8151},", Aldous Huxley recounts his experience with the taking of hallucinogenic cactus. He writes:",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":8153,"children":8154},{},[8155],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8156,"children":8157},{},[8158],{"type":36,"value":8159},"\"Space was still there; but it had lost its predominance. The mind was primarily concerned, not with measures and locations, but with being and meaning. And along with indifference to space there was an even more complete indifference to time.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8161,"children":8162},{},[8163],{"type":36,"value":8164},"One might think that as he loses all sense of time and space, he is no longer capable of thinking himself as a subject or of thinking an object, and therefore that he is no longer capable of expressing an experience through language. He plunges into what he calls a \"pure being\" of which nothing can be said. Further on, he attempts to describe what happens as he sinks into this state:",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":8166,"children":8167},{},[8168],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8169,"children":8170},{},[8171],{"type":36,"value":8172},"\"What I then saw was what I later described as the sacramental vision of beauty. I found myself back in the world I had been in while contemplating the flowers â back in a world where everything shone with the Inner Light, and was infinite in its significance. The legs of that chair â how miraculous their tubularity, how supernatural the
32ir polished smoothness! I spent several minutes â or was it several centuries? â not merely gazing at those bamboo legs, but actually being them â or rather being myself in them; or, to be still more accurate (for 'I' was not involved in the case, nor in a certain sense were 'they'), being my Not-self in the Not-self which was the chair.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8174,"children":8175},{},[8176],{"type":36,"value":8177},"What can one say except that this experience is not communicable, and that it stands at the very frontier of reality.",{"type":31,"tag":2396,"props":8179,"children":8181},{"id":8180},"the-thing-and-its-qualities-merleau-ponty-and-sartre",[8182],{"type":36,"value":8183},"The Thing and Its Qualities: Merleau-Ponty and Sartre",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8185,"children":8186},{},[8187],{"type":36,"value":8188},"But if reality is perception, and if perception is the relationship of subject to object, then things are not mere neutral objects that we would contemplate from the outside. Each thing is a system of qualities offered to the different senses. For classical psychology, these qualities would be united by an act of intellectual synthesis. But we fail to see thereby that what unites these different qualities does not seem to be an act of intellectual synthesis â there appears to be a unity in the thing itself.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8190,"children":8191},{},[8192],{"type":36,"value":8193},"Modern psychology has observed that each of these qualities, far from being rigorously isolated, possesses an affective significance that puts it in correspondence with those of the other senses. Each colour gives off a kind of moral atmosphere that makes it cheerful, invigorating... The same holds for sounds or tactile data: one can say that each is equivalent to a certain sound or a certain temperature. This is why the blind, when colours are described to them, manage to represent them to themselves through the analogy of a sound, for example. Provided, therefore, that one replaces quality within human experience, the relationship between the qualities of things begins to become intelligible.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8195,"children":8196},{},[8197,8199,8204],{"type":36,"value":8198},"Sartre writes in ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8200,"children":8201},{},[8202],{"type":36,"value":8203},"Being and Nothingness",{"type":36,"value":8205},": \"Each quality is revelatory of the being of the object.\" The different qualities a thing possesses are not merely juxtaposed in it, but are on the contrary identical insofar as they all manifest the same way of being. The unity of the thing is not behind each of its qualities; it is reaffirmed by each of them; each of them is the thing in its entirety. Honey, for example, is a decelerated fluid: not only does it give way the moment it has been shaped, but it is also honey itself that seizes the hands of whoever attempted to seize it. Honey is sweet, and sweetness is â in the order of taste â that same sticky presence which the viscous realizes in the order of touch. To say that honey is sweet and that it is sticky are two ways of saying the same thing: a certain relationship of the thing to us, a certain way it has of pulling us in, of fascinating. \"Honey is a certain behaviour of the world between my body and me.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8207,"children":8208},{},[8209],{"type":36,"value":8210},"Things, therefore, are not mere neutral objects standing before us that we would contemplate. Each of them symbolizes for us a certain conduct, recalls it to us, provokes from us favourable or unfavourable reactions. This is why a person's tastes â the stance they have adopted towards the world and towards exterior being â can be read in the objects with which they have chosen to surround themselves, in the colours they prefer, in the places they choose to walk. The human being is invested in things and things are invested in the human being. To speak in the language of the psychoanalyst: things are complexes.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":8212,"children":8213},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":8215,"children":8217},{"id":8216},"conclusion-1",[8218],{"type":36,"value":2664},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8220,"children":8221},{},[8222],{"type":36,"value":8223},"To conclude, one can say with Merleau-Ponty:",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":8225,"children":8226},{},[8227,8232],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8228,"children":8229},{},[8230],{"type":36,"value":8231},"\"It is time to acknowledge in the relationship between human beings and things no longer that relationship of distance and domination which exists between the sovereign mind and the piece of wax in Descartes' famous analysis, but a less clear relationship, a vertiginous proximity. This prevents us from defining ourselves as pure spirit apart from things, or from defining things as pure objects with no human attributes whatsoever.\"",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8233,"children":8234},{},[8235,8236,8240,8241],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":8237,"children":8238},{},[8239],{"type":36,"value":7166}
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Mais on aime quand même ce que l'on écrit. Car on se surprend soi-même. « Le livre manquant, le livre manqué, le livre qui restera toujours à écrire. » On se dit « je vais écrire ça » mais on se fourvoie. Il y a un gouffre inépuisable du besoin d'écrire.",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":8464,"children":8465},{},[8466,8470],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8467,"children":8468},{},[8469],{"type":36,"value":6725},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8471,"children":8472},{},[8473,8474],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":8475,"children":8476},{},[8477],{"type":36,"value":6734},{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":8479,"children":8480},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":8482,"children":8484},{"id":8483},"le-livre-comme-miroir",[8485],{"type":36,"value":8486},"Le livre comme miroir",{"type":31,"tag":3491,"props":8488,"children":8489},{},[8490,8499],{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8491,"children":8492},{},[8493,8494,8498],{"type":36,"value":6745},{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8495,"children":8496},{},[8497],{"type":36,"value":6750},{"type":36,"value":6752},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8500,"children":8501},{},[8502,8503],{"type":36,"value":6647},{"type":31,"tag":746,"props":8504,"children":8505},{},[8506],{"type":36,"value":6761},{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8508,"children":8509},{},[8510],{"type":36,"value":8511},"Le livre est un miroir réfléchissant. On sait depuis les travaux de Lacan l'importance du stade du miroir et ce que cela représente pour la formation du « je ».",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":8513,"children":8514},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":8516,"children":8518},{"id":8517},"pierre-bergounioux-et-le-livre-qui-nexiste-pas",[8519],{"type":36,"value":8520},"Pierre Bergounioux et le livre qui n'existe pas",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8522,"children":8523},{},[8524,8526,8531],{"type":36,"value":8525},"Enfant à la recherche d'un livre qui lui apprendrait quel « je » nous étions. Les formes les plus hautes de conscience sont consubstantiellement liées à l'écrit. C'est le seul moyen de ne pas être encombré. Ce livre qui lui aurait tout dit est en fait un livre qui n'existe pas. Il y aurait découvert la « légende » au sens strict, c'est-à -dire ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8527,"children":8528},{},[8529],{"type":36,"value":8530},"ce qui doit être lu",{"type":36,"value":8532},". Il comprit bien plus tard que ce livre est resté dans l'encrier. Il n'a pas trouvé ce livre, donc il s'est mis à écrire.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8534,"children":8535},{},[8536],{"type":36,"value":8537},"L'avantage de l'écrit : faire communiquer. C'est un processus d'éclaircissement. Les pensées prennent forme dans l'écriture, car elles s
32ont objectivées, extériorisées. Il n'y a pas de place pour l'innocence. Il faut avoir lu avant d'écrire.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8539,"children":8540},{},[8541],{"type":36,"value":8542},"L'enfant qui est en nous se dissipe, il peut s'absenter quand on écrit. Nous sommes des êtres de sens, une espèce symbolique. Nous ne pouvons nous tenir quittes de quoi que ce soit que si cela est irradié par le sens. Si ça n'a pas de sens, on est perdu.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":8544,"children":8545},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":8547,"children":8549},{"id":8548},"le-mystère-de-ce-qui-fait-un-moment",[8550],{"type":36,"value":8551},"Le mystère de ce qui fait un moment",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8553,"children":8554},{},[8555],{"type":36,"value":8556},"La barrière qu'il y a entre l'auteur et le lecteur â il y a quelque chose qui fait qu'on peut passer la frontière. « Ah, ça, ça peut être lu. » Soit parce que ça touche quelque chose d'intime, ou quelque chose où l'on se sent moins fort, ou parce que c'est atrocement écrit. Tout auteur a besoin d'un verrou de fiction entre lui et le lecteur.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":8558,"children":8559},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":8561,"children":8563},{"id":8562},"lobsession-comme-moteur",[8564],{"type":36,"value":8565},"L'obsession comme moteur",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8567,"children":8568},{},[8569],{"type":36,"value":8570},"On n'est pas transparent à soi-même. Un livre est un point d'obsession. Un livre sert à déployer une obsession profonde. Par exemple la moitié des livres qu'il a écrits sont remplis d'incendies. On peut se demander : pourquoi suis-je obsédé par les incendies ? Mais là on est plus dans le domaine de la littérature et je ne sais pas si je pourrais continuer d'écrire des livres si je savais y répondre. La littérature est là pour nous révéler la question. Les mystères liés à son imaginaire. Il y a sûrement des traumas, des fascinations. Il semble qu'il ne faut pas tout comprendre à l'expérience de l'écriture.",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8572,"children":8573},{},[8574],{"type":36,"value":8575},"Les auteurs à chaque livre renouvellent, mais ce sont des détours qui les ramènent toujours à la même chose. S'il refait toujours ni tout à fait le même ni tout à fait un autre livre, en tout cas il prend une assurance telle qu'il peut assumer son Åuvre pleinement.",{"type":31,"tag":59,"props":8577,"children":8578},{},[],{"type":31,"tag":63,"props":8580,"children":8582},{"id":8581},"le-projet-borgésien",[8583],{"type":36,"value":8584},"Le projet borgésien",{"type":31,"tag":32,"props":8586,"children":8587},{},[8588,8590,8595,8597,8602,8604,8609],{"type":36,"value":8589},"Ãcrire c'est aussi rajouter des mots à l'immense corpus de l'humanité. Projet borgésien (",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8591,"children":8592},{},[8593],{"type":36,"value":8594},"La Bibliothèque de Babel",{"type":36,"value":8596}," ; lire ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8598,"children":8599},{},[8600],{"type":36,"value":8601},"Les Sept Nuits",{"type":36,"value":8603}," sur la ",{"type":31,"tag":39,"props":8605,"children":8606},{},[8607],{"type":36,"value":8608},"Divine Comédie",{"type":36,"value":8610},"). Ãtre auteur c'est ajouter ses mots à ce grand ensemble.",{"title":9,"searchDepth":673,"depth":673,"links":8612},[8613,8614,8615,8616,8617],{"id":8483,"depth":673,"text":8486},{"id":8517,"depth":673,"text":8520},{"id":8548,"depth":673,"text":8551},{"id":8562,"depth":673,"text":8565},{"id":8581,"depth":673,"text":8584},"content:blog:le-livre-manquant.md","blog\u002Fle-livre-manquant.md","blog\u002Fle-livre-manquant",{"loc":8425},["Reactive",8623],{"$sdd-pages":8624,"$sdd-surrounds":8628,"$sdd-globals":8632,"$sdd-navigation":8634,"$ssite-config":8670},["ShallowRef",8625],["ShallowReactive",8626],{"\u002Fblog":8627},null,["ShallowRef",8629],["ShallowReactive",8630],{"\u002Fblog":8631},[8627,8627],["ShallowRef",8633],{},[8635,8654],{"title":8636,"_path":8637,"children":8638},"Blog","\u002Fblog",[8639,8640,8641,8642,8643,8644,8645,8646,8647,8648,8649,8650,8651,8652,8653],{"title":2297,"_path":2296},{"title":2828,"_path":2827},{"title":5445,"_path":5444},{"title":6628,"_path":6627},{"title":7157,"_path":7156},{"title":3443,"_path":3442},{"title":4333,"_path":4332},{"title":5102,"_path":5101},{"title":8426,"_path":8425},{"title":6770,"_path":6769},{"title":4386,"_path":4385},{"title":2730,"_path":2729},{"title":691,"_path":690},{"title":10,"_path":6},{"title":3243,"_path":3242},{"title":8655,"_path":8656,"children":8657},"Publications","\u002Fpublications",[8658,8661,8664,8667],{"title":8659,"_path":8660},"Development and validation of a quantitative instrument for measuring temporal and social disorientation in the Covid-19 crisis","\u002Fpublications\u002F2022-temporal-social-
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