1<!DOCTYPE html> 2 3<html lang="en-US"> 4 5<head> 6 7<meta charset="UTF-8" /> 8 9<title>Sociological Science</title> 10 11<meta property="og:image" content="https://www.sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/SocScilogoonly114114_fb.jpg" /> 12 13 14<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> 15 16<link rel="pingback" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/xmlrpc.php" /> 17 18<meta name='robots' content='max-image-preview:large' /> 19<link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//ajax.googleapis.com' /> 20<link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Sociological Science » Feed" href="http://www.sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/feed/" /> 21<link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Sociological Science » Comments Feed" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/comments/feed/" /> 22<link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Sociological Science » Sociological Science Comments Feed" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/homepage/feed/" /> 23<link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (JSON)" type="application/json+oembed" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fsociologicalscience.com%2F" /> 24<link rel="alternate" title="oEmbed (XML)" type="text/xml+oembed" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-json/oembed/1.0/embed?url=https%3A%2F%2Fsociologicalscience.com%2F&format=xml" /> 25<style id="wp-img-auto-sizes-contain-inline-css"> 26img:is([sizes=auto i],[sizes^="auto," i]){contain-intrinsic-size:3000px 1500px} 27/*# sourceURL=wp-img-auto-sizes-contain-inline-css */ 28</style> 29<link rel='stylesheet' id='wpfb-css' href='//sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/wp-filebase/wp-filebase.css?t=1663967545&ver=3.4.4' media='all' /> 30<style id="wp-emoji-styles-inline-css"> 31 32 img.wp-smiley, img.emoji { 33 display: inline !important; 34 border: none !important; 35 box-shadow: none !important; 36 height: 1em !important; 37 width: 1em !important; 38 margin: 0 0.07em !important; 39 vertical-align: -0.1em !important; 40 background: none !important; 41 padding: 0 !important; 42 } 43/*# sourceURL=wp-emoji-styles-inline-css */ 44</style> 45<style id="wp-block-library-inline-css"> 46:root{--wp-block-synced-color:#7a00df;--wp-block-synced-color--rgb:122,0,223;--wp-bound-block-color:var(--wp-block-synced-color);--wp-editor-canvas-background:#ddd;--wp-admin-theme-color:#007cba;--wp-admin-theme-color--rgb:0,124,186;--wp-admin-theme-color-darker-10:#006ba1;--wp-admin-theme-color-darker-10--rgb:0,107,160.5;--wp-admin-theme-color-darker-20:#005a87;--wp-admin-theme-color-darker-20--rgb:0,90,135;--wp-admin-border-width-focus:2px}@media (min-resolution:192dpi){:root{--wp-admin-border-width-focus:1.5px}}.wp-element-button{cursor:pointer}:root .has-very-light-gray-background-color{background-color:#eee}:root .has-very-dark-gray-background-color{background-color:#313131}:root .has-very-light-gray-color{color:#eee}:root .has-very-dark-gray-color{color:#313131}:root .has-vivid-green-cyan-to-vivid-cyan-blue-gradient-background{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#00d084,#0693e3)}:root .has-purple-crush-gradient-background{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#34e2e4,#4721fb 50%,#ab1dfe)}:root .has-hazy-dawn-gradient-background{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#faaca8,#dad0ec)}:root .has-subdued-olive-gradient-background{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#fafae1,#67a671)}:root .has-atomic-cream-gradient-background{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#fdd79a,#004a59)}:root .has-nightshade-gradient-background{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#330968,#31cdcf)}:root .has-midnight-gradient-background{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#020381,#2874fc)}:root{--wp--preset--font-size--normal:16px;
46--wp--preset--font-size--huge:42px}.has-regular-font-size{font-size:1em}.has-larger-font-size{font-size:2.625em}.has-normal-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--normal)}.has-huge-font-size{font-size:var(--wp--preset--font-size--huge)}:root .has-text-align-center{text-align:center}:root .has-text-align-left{text-align:left}:root .has-text-align-right{text-align:right}.has-fit-text{white-space:nowrap!important}#end-resizable-editor-section{display:none}.aligncenter{clear:both}.items-justified-left{justify-content:flex-start}.items-justified-center{justify-content:center}.items-justified-right{justify-content:flex-end}.items-justified-space-between{justify-content:space-between}.screen-reader-text{word-wrap:normal!important;border:0;clip-path:inset(50%);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px;word-break:normal!important}.screen-reader-text:focus{background-color:#ddd;clip-path:none;color:#444;display:block;font-size:1em;height:auto;left:5px;line-height:normal;padding:15px 23px 14px;text-decoration:none;top:5px;width:auto;z-index:100000}html :where(.has-border-color){border-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-color],[style*=";border-color"],[style*="; border-color"]){border-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-top-color],[style*=";border-top-color"],[style*="; border-top-color"]){border-top-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-right-color],[style*=";border-right-color"],[style*="; border-right-color"]){border-right-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-bottom-color],[style*=";border-bottom-color"],[style*="; border-bottom-color"]){border-bottom-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-left-color],[style*=";border-left-color"],[style*="; border-left-color"]){border-left-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-width],[style*=";border-width"],[style*="; border-width"]){border-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-top-width],[style*=";border-top-width"],[style*="; border-top-width"]){border-top-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-right-width],[style*=";border-right-width"],[style*="; border-right-width"]){border-right-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-bottom-width],[style*=";border-bottom-width"],[style*="; border-bottom-width"]){border-bottom-style:solid}html :where([style^=border-left-width],[style*=";border-left-width"],[style*="; border-left-width"]){border-left-style:solid}html :where(img[class*=wp-image-]){height:auto;max-width:100%}:where(figure){margin:0 0 1em}html :where(.is-position-sticky){--wp-admin--admin-bar--position-offset:var(--wp-admin--admin-bar--height,0px)}@media screen and (max-width:600px){html :where(.is-position-sticky){--wp-admin--admin-bar--position-offset:0px}} 47 48/*# sourceURL=/wp-includes/css/dist/block-library/common.min.css */ 49</style> 50<style id="classic-theme-styles-inline-css"> 51/*! This file is auto-generated */ 52.wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none} 53/*# sourceURL=/wp-includes/css/classic-themes.min.css */ 54</style> 55 56<link rel='stylesheet' id='metaslider-blocks-editor-css-css' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/ml-slider/admin/assets/dist/css/editor-block.css?ver=3.113.0' media='all' property='stylesheet' /> 57<style id="global-styles-inline-css"> 58:root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square: 1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3: 4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4: 3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2: 3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3: 2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9: 16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16: 9/16;--wp--preset--color--black: #000000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray: #abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white: #ffffff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink: #f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red: #cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange: #ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber: #fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan: #7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan: #00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue: #8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue: #0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple: #9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(6,147,227) 0%,rgb(155,81,224) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(122,220,180) 0%,rgb(0,208,130) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(252,185,
580) 0%,rgb(255,105,0) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,105,0) 0%,rgb(207,46,46) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(238,238,238) 0%,rgb(169,184,195) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(74,234,220) 0%,rgb(151,120,209) 20%,rgb(207,42,186) 40%,rgb(238,44,130) 60%,rgb(251,105,98) 80%,rgb(254,248,76) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,206,236) 0%,rgb(152,150,240) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(254,205,165) 0%,rgb(254,45,45) 50%,rgb(107,0,62) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,203,112) 0%,rgb(199,81,192) 50%,rgb(65,88,208) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,245,203) 0%,rgb(182,227,212) 50%,rgb(51,167,181) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(202,248,128) 0%,rgb(113,206,126) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(2,3,129) 0%,rgb(40,116,252) 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small: 13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium: 20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large: 36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large: 42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20: 0.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30: 0.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40: 1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50: 1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60: 2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70: 3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80: 5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural: 6px 6px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep: 12px 12px 50px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined: 6px 6px 0px -3px rgb(255, 255, 255), 6px 6px rgb(0, 0, 0);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp: 6px 6px 0px rgb(0, 0, 0);}.wp-block-button{--wp--preset--dimension--25: 25%;--wp--preset--dimension--50: 50%;--wp--preset--dimension--75: 75%;--wp--preset--dimension--100: 100%;}:where(body) { margin: 0; }:where(.is-layout-flex){gap: 0.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap: 0.5em;}body .is-layout-flex{display: flex;}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap: wrap;align-items: center;}.is-layout-flex > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}body .is-layout-grid{display: grid;}.is-layout-grid > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}body{padding-top: 0px;padding-right: 0px;padding-bottom: 0px;padding-left: 0px;}:root :where(.wp-element-button, .wp-block-button__link){background-color: #32373c;border-width: 0;color: #fff;font-family: inherit;font-size: inherit;font-style: inherit;font-weight: inherit;letter-spacing: inherit;line-height: inherit;padding-top: calc(0.667em + 2px);padding-right: calc(1.333em + 2px);padding-bottom: calc(0.667em + 2px);padding-left: calc(1.333em + 2px);text-decoration: none;text-transform: inherit;}.has-black-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}
58.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;} 59/*# sourceURL=global-styles-inline-css */ 60</style> 61 62<link rel='stylesheet' id='albdesign-modal-popups-css' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/nifty-modal-popup/css/modal_popup_component.css?ver=c495499e2999688f9a3fa374cd169d5f' media='all' /> 63<style id="responsive-menu-inline-css"> 64/** This file is major component of this plugin so please don't try to edit here. */ 65#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 { 66 width: 50px; 67 height: 50px; 68 position: fixed; 69 top: 3px; 70 border-radius: 5px; 71 display: none; 72 text-decoration: none; 73 right: 5%; 74 background: #000000; 75 transition: transform 0.5s, background-color 0.5s; 76} 77#rmp_menu_trigger-6289:hover, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289:focus { 78 background: #000000; 79 text-decoration: unset; 80} 81#rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active { 82 background: #000000; 83} 84#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .rmp-trigger-box { 85 width: 25px; 86 color: #ffffff; 87} 88#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .rmp-trigger-icon-active, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .rmp-trigger-text-open { 89 display: none; 90} 91#rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active .rmp-trigger-icon-active, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active .rmp-trigger-text-open { 92 display: inline; 93} 94#rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active .rmp-trigger-icon-inactive, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active .rmp-trigger-text { 95 display: none; 96} 97#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .rmp-trigger-label { 98 color: #ffffff; 99 pointer-events: none; 100 line-height: 13px; 101 font-family: inherit; 102 font-size: 11px; 103 display: inline; 104 text-transform: inherit; 105} 106#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .rmp-trigger-label.rmp-trigger-label-top { 107 display: block; 108 margin-bottom: 12px; 109} 110#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .rmp-trigger-label.rmp-trigger-label-bottom { 111 display: block; 112 margin-top: 12px; 113} 114#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .responsive-menu-pro-inner { 115 display: block; 116} 117#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .rmp-trigger-icon-inactive .rmp-font-icon { 118 color: #ffffff; 119} 120#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .responsive-menu-pro-inner, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .responsive-menu-pro-inner::before, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .responsive-menu-pro-inner::after { 121 width: 25px; 122 height: 3px; 123 background-color: #ffffff; 124 border-radius: 4px; 125 position: absolute; 126} 127#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .rmp-trigger-icon-active .rmp-font-icon { 128 color: #ffffff; 129} 130#rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active .responsive-menu-pro-inner, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active .responsive-menu-pro-inner::before, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active .responsive-menu-pro-inner::after { 131 background-color: #ffffff; 132} 133#rmp_menu_trigger-6289:hover .rmp-trigger-icon-inactive .rmp-font-icon { 134 color: #ffffff; 135} 136#rmp_menu_trigger-6289:not(.is-active):hover .responsive-menu-pro-inner, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289:not(.is-active):hover .responsive-menu-pro-inner::before, #rmp_menu_trigger-6289:not(.is-active):hover .responsive-menu-pro-inner::after { 137 background-color: #ffffff; 138} 139#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .responsive-menu-pro-inner::before { 140 top: 10px; 141} 142#rmp_menu_trigger-6289 .responsive-menu-pro-inner::after { 143 bottom: 10px; 144} 145#rmp_menu_trigger-6289.is-active .responsive-menu-pro-inner::after { 146 bottom: 0; 147} 148/* Hamburger menu styling */ 149@media screen and (max-width: 800px) { 150 /** Menu Title Style */ 151 /** Menu Additional Content Style */ 152 /** Menu Social Icons Style */ 153 #rmp_menu_trigger-6289 { 154 display: block; 155 } 156 #rmp-container-6289 { 157 position: fixed; 158 top: 0; 159 margin: 0; 160 transition: transform 0.5s; 161 overflow: auto; 162 display: block; 163 width: 75%; 164 background-color: #2775aa; 165 background-image: url(""); 166 height: 100%; 167 left: 0; 168 padding-top: 0px; 169 padding-left: 0px; 170 padding-bottom: 0px; 171 padding-right: 0px; 172 } 173 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 { 174 padding-top: 0px; 175 padding-left: 0px; 176 padding-bottom: 0px; 177 padding-right: 0px; 178 background-color: #2775aa; 179 } 180 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu, #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu { 181 width: 100%; 182 box-sizing: border-box; 183 margin: 0; 184 padding: 0; 185 } 186 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu-depth-1 .rmp-menu-item-link { 187 padding-left: 10%; 188 } 189 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu-depth-2 .rmp-menu-item-link { 190 padding-left: 15%; 191 } 192 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu-depth-3 .rmp-menu-item-link { 193 padding-left: 20%; 194 } 195 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu-depth-4 .rmp-menu-item-link { 196 padding-left: 25%; 197 } 198 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu.rmp-submenu-open { 199 display: block; 200 } 201 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item { 202 width: 100%; 203 list-style: none; 204 margin: 0; 205 } 206 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item-link { 207 height: 40px; 208 line-height: 40px; 209 font-size: 13px; 210 border-bottom: 1px solid #ffffff; 211 font-family: inherit; 212 color: #ffffff; 213 text-align: left; 214 background-color: #2775aa; 215 font-weight: normal; 216 letter-spacing: 0px; 217 display: block; 218 box-sizing: border-box; 219 width: 100%; 220 text-decoration: none; 221 position: relative; 222 overflow: hidden; 223 transition: background-color 0.5s, border-color 0.5s, 0.5s; 224 padding: 0 5%; 225 padding-right: 50px; 226 } 227 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item-link:after, #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item-link:before { 228 display: none; 229 } 230 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item-link:hover, #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item-link:focus { 231 color: #ffffff; 232 border-color: #212121; 233 background-color: #3f3f3f; 234 } 235 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item-link:focus { 236 outline: none; 237 border-color: unset; 238 box-shadow: unset; 239 } 240 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item-link .rmp-font-icon { 241 height: 40px; 242 line-height: 40px; 243 margin-right: 10px; 244 font-size: 13px; 245 } 246 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-current-item .rmp-menu-item-link { 247 color: #ffffff; 248 border-color: #212121; 249 background-color: #212121; 250 } 251 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-current-item .rmp-menu-item-link:hover, #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-current-item .rmp-menu-item-link:focus { 252 color: #ffffff; 253 border-color: #3f3f3f; 254 background-color: #3f3f3f; 255 } 256 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow { 257 position: absolute; 258 top: 0; 259 bottom: 0; 260 text-align: center; 261 overflow: hidden; 262 background-size: cover; 263 overflow: hidden; 264 right: 0; 265 border-left-style: solid; 266 border-left-color: #ffffff; 267 border-left-width: 1px; 268 height: 39px; 269 width: 40px; 270 color: #ffffff; 271 background-color: #2775aa; 272 } 273 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow svg { 274 fill: #ffffff; 275 } 276 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow:hover { 277 color: #ffffff; 278 border-color: #3f3f3f; 279 background-color: #3f3f3f; 280 } 281 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow:hover svg { 282 fill: #ffffff; 283 } 284 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow .rmp-font-icon { 285 margin-right: unset; 286 } 287 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow * { 288 vertical-align: middle; 289 line-height: 39px; 290 } 291 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow-active { 292 display: block; 293 background-size: cover; 294 color: #ffffff; 295 border-color: #212121; 296 background-color: #212121; 297 } 298 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow-active svg { 299 fill: #ffffff; 300 } 301 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow-active:hover { 302 color: #ffffff; 303 border-color: #3f3f3f; 304 background-color: #3f3f3f; 305 } 306 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-subarrow-active:hover svg { 307 fill: #ffffff; 308 } 309 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu { 310 display: none; 311 } 312 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-item-link { 313 height: 40px; 314 line-height: 40px; 315 letter-spacing: 0px; 316 font-size: 13px; 317 border-bottom: 1px solid #212121; 318 font-family: inherit; 319 font-weight: normal; 320 color: #ffffff; 321 text-align: left; 322 background-color: #212121; 323 } 324 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-item-link:hover, #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-item-link:focus { 325 color: #ffffff; 326 border-color: #212121; 327 background-color: #3f3f3f; 328 } 329 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-current-item .rmp-menu-item-link { 330 color: #ffffff; 331 border-color: #212121; 332 background-color: #212121; 333 } 334 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-current-item .rmp-menu-item-link:hover, #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-current-item .rmp-menu-item-link:focus { 335 color: #ffffff; 336 border-color: #3f3f3f; 337 background-color: #3f3f3f; 338 } 339 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-subarrow { 340 right: 0; 341 border-right: unset; 342 border-left-style: solid; 343 border-left-color: #1d4354; 344 border-left-width: 0px; 345 height: 39px; 346 line-height: 39px; 347 width: 40px; 348 color: #fff; 349 background-color: inherit; 350 } 351 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-subarrow:hover { 352 color: #fff; 353 border-color: #3f3f3f; 354 background-color: inherit; 355 } 356 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-subarrow-active { 357 color: #fff; 358 border-color: #1d4354; 359 background-color: inherit; 360 } 361 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-submenu .rmp-menu-subarrow-active:hover { 362 color: #fff; 363 border-color: #3f3f3f; 364 background-color: inherit; 365 } 366 #rmp-menu-wrap-6289 .rmp-menu-item-description { 367 margin: 0; 368 padding: 5px 5%; 369 opacity: 0.8; 370 color: #ffffff; 371 } 372 #rmp-search-box-6289 { 373 display: block; 374 padding-top: 0px; 375 padding-left: 5%; 376 padding-bottom: 0px; 377 padding-right: 5%; 378 } 379 #rmp-search-box-6289 .rmp-search-form { 380 margin: 0; 381 } 382 #rmp-search-box-6289 .rmp-search-box { 383 background: #ffffff; 384 border: 1px solid #dadada; 385 color: #333333; 386 width: 100%; 387 padding: 0 5%; 388 border-radius: 30px; 389 height: 45px; 390 -webkit-appearance: none; 391 } 392 #rmp-search-box-6289 .rmp-search-box::placeholder { 393 color: #c7c7cd; 394 } 395 #rmp-search-box-6289 .rmp-search-box:focus { 396 background-color: #ffffff; 397 outline: 2px solid #dadada; 398 color: #333333; 399 } 400 #rmp-menu-title-6289 { 401 background-color: #212121; 402 color: #ffffff; 403 text-align: center; 404 font-size: 13px; 405 padding-top: 10%; 406 padding-left: 5%; 407 padding-bottom: 0%; 408 padding-right: 5%; 409 font-weight: 400; 410 transition: background-color 0.5s, border-color 0.5s, color 0.5s; 411 } 412 #rmp-menu-title-6289:hover { 413 background-color: #212121; 414 color: #ffffff; 415 } 416 #rmp-menu-title-6289 > .rmp-menu-title-link { 417 color: #ffffff; 418 width: 100%; 419 background-color: unset; 420 text-decoration: none; 421 } 422 #rmp-menu-title-6289 > .rmp-menu-title-link:hover { 423 color: #ffffff; 424 } 425 #rmp-menu-title-6289 .rmp-font-icon { 426 font-size: 13px; 427 } 428 #rmp-menu-additional-content-6289 { 429 padding-top: 0px; 430 padding-left: 5%; 431 padding-bottom: 0px; 432 padding-right: 5%; 433 color: #ffffff; 434 text-align: center; 435 font-size: 16px; 436 } 437 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 { 438 padding-top: 0%; 439 padding-left: 0%; 440 padding-right: 0%; 441 padding-bottom: 0%; 442 } 443 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 .rmp-social-icons-list { 444 display: flex; 445 flex-direction: row; 446 flex-wrap: wrap; 447 gap: 10px; 448 list-style: none; 449 padding: 0; 450 margin: 0; 451 } 452 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289.rmp-social-icons-layout-vertical .rmp-social-icons-list { 453 flex-direction: column; 454 align-items: flex-start; 455 } 456 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289.rmp-social-icons-layout-horizontal.rmp-social-icons-align-left .rmp-social-icons-list { 457 justify-content: flex-start; 458 } 459 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289.rmp-social-icons-layout-horizontal.rmp-social-icons-align-center .rmp-social-icons-list { 460 justify-content: center; 461 } 462 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289.rmp-social-icons-layout-horizontal.rmp-social-icons-align-right .rmp-social-icons-list { 463 justify-content: flex-end; 464 } 465 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289.rmp-social-icons-layout-vertical.rmp-social-icons-align-left .rmp-social-icons-list {
466 align-items: flex-start; 467 } 468 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289.rmp-social-icons-layout-vertical.rmp-social-icons-align-center .rmp-social-icons-list { 469 align-items: center; 470 } 471 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289.rmp-social-icons-layout-vertical.rmp-social-icons-align-right .rmp-social-icons-list { 472 align-items: flex-end; 473 } 474 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 .rmp-social-icon-link { 475 display: inline-flex; 476 align-items: center; 477 gap: 8px; 478 text-decoration: none; 479 color: inherit; 480 } 481 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 .rmp-social-icon-link:hover { 482 color: inherit; 483 } 484 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 .rmp-social-icon-link--no-link { 485 cursor: default; 486 color: inherit; 487 } 488 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 .rmp-social-icon-link--no-link:hover { 489 color: inherit; 490 } 491 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 .rmp-social-icon { 492 line-height: 1; 493 display: inline-flex; 494 align-items: center; 495 justify-content: center; 496 } 497 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 .rmp-social-icon .rmp-font-icon { 498 font-size: 24px; 499 } 500 #rmp-menu-social-icons-6289 .rmp-social-icon svg { 501 fill: currentColor; 502 } 503} 504/** 505This file contents common styling of menus. 506*/ 507.rmp-container { 508 display: none; 509 visibility: visible; 510 padding: 0px 0px 0px 0px; 511 z-index: 99998; 512 transition: all 0.3s; 513 /** Scrolling bar in menu setting box **/ 514} 515.rmp-container.rmp-fade-top, .rmp-container.rmp-fade-left, .rmp-container.rmp-fade-right, .rmp-container.rmp-fade-bottom { 516 display: none; 517} 518.rmp-container.rmp-slide-left, .rmp-container.rmp-push-left { 519 transform: translateX(-100%); 520 -ms-transform: translateX(-100%); 521 -webkit-transform: translateX(-100%); 522 -moz-transform: translateX(-100%); 523} 524.rmp-container.rmp-slide-left.rmp-menu-open, .rmp-container.rmp-push-left.rmp-menu-open { 525 transform: translateX(0); 526 -ms-transform: translateX(0); 527 -webkit-transform: translateX(0); 528 -moz-transform: translateX(0); 529} 530.rmp-container.rmp-slide-right, .rmp-container.rmp-push-right { 531 transform: translateX(100%); 532 -ms-transform: translateX(100%); 533 -webkit-transform: translateX(100%); 534 -moz-transform: translateX(100%); 535} 536.rmp-container.rmp-slide-right.rmp-menu-open, .rmp-container.rmp-push-right.rmp-menu-open { 537 transform: translateX(0); 538 -ms-transform: translateX(0); 539 -webkit-transform: translateX(0); 540 -moz-transform: translateX(0); 541} 542.rmp-container.rmp-slide-top, .rmp-container.rmp-push-top { 543 transform: translateY(-100%); 544 -ms-transform: translateY(-100%); 545 -webkit-transform: translateY(-100%); 546 -moz-transform: translateY(-100%); 547} 548.rmp-container.rmp-slide-top.rmp-menu-open, .rmp-container.rmp-push-top.rmp-menu-open { 549 transform: translateY(0); 550 -ms-transform: translateY(0); 551 -webkit-transform: translateY(0); 552 -moz-transform: translateY(0); 553} 554.rmp-container.rmp-slide-bottom, .rmp-container.rmp-push-bottom { 555 transform: translateY(100%); 556 -ms-transform: translateY(100%); 557 -webkit-transform: translateY(100%); 558 -moz-transform: translateY(100%); 559} 560.rmp-container.rmp-slide-bottom.rmp-menu-open, .rmp-container.rmp-push-bottom.rmp-menu-open { 561 transform: translateX(0); 562 -ms-transform: translateX(0); 563 -webkit-transform: translateX(0); 564 -moz-transform: translateX(0); 565} 566.rmp-container::-webkit-scrollbar {
567 width: 0px; 568} 569.rmp-container ::-webkit-scrollbar-track { 570 box-shadow: inset 0 0 5px transparent; 571} 572.rmp-container ::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb { 573 background: transparent; 574} 575.rmp-container ::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb:hover { 576 background: transparent; 577} 578.rmp-container .rmp-menu-wrap .rmp-menu { 579 transition: none; 580 border-radius: 0; 581 box-shadow: none; 582 background: none; 583 border: 0; 584 bottom: auto; 585 box-sizing: border-box; 586 clip: auto; 587 color: #666; 588 display: block; 589 float: none; 590 font-family: inherit; 591 font-size: 14px; 592 height: auto; 593 left: auto; 594 line-height: 1.7; 595 list-style-type: none; 596 margin: 0; 597 min-height: auto; 598 max-height: none; 599 opacity: 1; 600 outline: none; 601 overflow: visible; 602 padding: 0; 603 position: relative; 604 pointer-events: auto; 605 right: auto; 606 text-align: left; 607 text-decoration: none; 608 text-indent: 0; 609 text-transform: none; 610 transform: none; 611 top: auto; 612 visibility: inherit; 613 width: auto; 614 word-wrap: break-word; 615 white-space: normal; 616} 617.rmp-container .rmp-menu-additional-content { 618 display: block; 619 word-break: break-word; 620} 621.rmp-container .rmp-menu-title { 622 display: flex; 623 flex-direction: column; 624} 625.rmp-container .rmp-menu-title .rmp-menu-title-image { 626 max-width: 100%; 627 margin-bottom: 15px; 628 display: block; 629 margin: auto; 630 margin-bottom: 15px; 631} 632button.rmp_menu_trigger { 633 z-index: 999999; 634 overflow: hidden; 635 outline: none; 636 border: 0; 637 display: none; 638 margin: 0; 639 transition: transform 0.5s, background-color 0.5s; 640 padding: 0; 641} 642button.rmp_menu_trigger .responsive-menu-pro-inner::before, button.rmp_menu_trigger .responsive-menu-pro-inner::after { 643 content: ""; 644 display: block; 645} 646button.rmp_menu_trigger .responsive-menu-pro-inner::before { 647 top: 10px; 648} 649button.rmp_menu_trigger .responsive-menu-pro-inner::after { 650 bottom: 10px; 651} 652button.rmp_menu_trigger .rmp-trigger-box { 653 width: 40px; 654 display: inline-block; 655 position: relative; 656 pointer-events: none; 657 vertical-align: super; 658} 659/* Menu Trigger Boring Animation */ 660.rmp-menu-trigger-boring .responsive-menu-pro-inner { 661 transition-property: none; 662} 663.rmp-menu-trigger-boring .responsive-menu-pro-inner::after, .rmp-menu-trigger-boring .responsive-menu-pro-inner::before { 664 transition-property: none; 665} 666.rmp-menu-trigger-boring.is-active .responsive-menu-pro-inner { 667 transform: rotate(45deg); 668} 669.rmp-menu-trigger-boring.is-active .responsive-menu-pro-inner:before { 670 top: 0; 671 opacity: 0; 672} 673.rmp-menu-trigger-boring.is-active .responsive-menu-pro-inner:after { 674 bottom: 0; 675 transform: rotate(-90deg); 676} 677 678/*# sourceURL=responsive-menu-inline-css */ 679</style> 680<link rel='stylesheet' id='dashicons-css' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/css/dashicons.min.css?ver=c495499e2999688f9a3fa374cd169d5f' media='all' /> 681<link rel='stylesheet' id='tablepress-default-css' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/tablepress-combined.min.css?ver=56' media='all' /> 682<link rel='stylesheet' id='theme-stylesheet-css' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/sociologicalscience/style.css?ver=5.2.0' media='all' /> 683<link rel='stylesheet' id='woo-layout-css' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/css/layout.css?ver=c495499e2999688f9a3fa374cd169d5f' media='all' /> 684<!--[if lt IE 9]> 685<link href="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/css/non-responsive.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> 686<style type="text/css">.col-full, #wrapper { width: 1050px; max-width: 1050px; } #inner-wrapper { padding: 0; } body.full-width #header, #nav-container, body.full-width #content, body.full-width #footer-widgets, body.full-width #footer { padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0; } body.fixed-mobile #top, body.fixed-mobile #header-container, body.fixed-mobile #footer-container, body.fixed-mobile #nav-container, body.fixed-mobile #footer-widgets-container { min-width: 1050px; padding: 0 1em; } body.full-width #content { width: auto; padding: 0 1em;}</style> 687<![endif]-->
688<script id="jquery-js" src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/3.1.1/jquery.min.js"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 688
688
689<script id="rmp_menu_scripts-js-extra"> 690var rmp_menu = {"ajaxURL":"https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-admin/admin-ajax.php","wp_nonce":"49468572fc","menu":[{"menu_theme":"Default","theme_type":"default","theme_location_menu":"0","submenu_submenu_arrow_width":"40","submenu_submenu_arrow_width_unit":"px","submenu_submenu_arrow_height":"39","submenu_submenu_arrow_height_unit":"px","submenu_arrow_position":"right","submenu_sub_arrow_background_colour":"","submenu_sub_arrow_background_hover_colour":"","submenu_sub_arrow_background_colour_active":"","submenu_sub_arrow_background_hover_colour_active":"","submenu_sub_arrow_border_width":"","submenu_sub_arrow_border_width_unit":"px","submenu_sub_arrow_border_colour":"#1d4354","submenu_sub_arrow_border_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","submenu_sub_arrow_border_colour_active":"#1d4354","submenu_sub_arrow_border_hover_colour_active":"#3f3f3f","submenu_sub_arrow_shape_colour":"#fff","submenu_sub_arrow_shape_hover_colour":"#fff","submenu_sub_arrow_shape_colour_active":"#fff","submenu_sub_arrow_shape_hover_colour_active":"#fff","use_header_bar":"off","header_bar_items_order":{"logo":"off","title":"on","additional content":"off","menu":"on","search":"off"},"header_bar_title":"Responsive Menu","header_bar_html_content":"","header_bar_logo":"","header_bar_logo_link":"","header_bar_logo_width":"","header_bar_logo_width_unit":"%","header_bar_logo_height":"","header_bar_logo_height_unit":"px","header_bar_height":"80","header_bar_height_unit":"px","header_bar_padding":{"top":"0px","right":"5%","bottom":"0px","left":"5%"},"header_bar_font":"","header_bar_font_size":"14","header_bar_font_size_unit":"px","header_bar_text_color":"#ffffff","header_bar_background_color":"#1d4354","header_bar_breakpoint":"8000","header_bar_position_type":"fixed","header_bar_adjust_page":"on","header_bar_scroll_enable":"off","header_bar_scroll_background_color":"#36bdf6","mobile_breakpoint":"600","tablet_breakpoint":"800","transition_speed":"0.5","sub_menu_speed":"0.2","show_menu_on_page_load":"off","menu_disable_scrolling":"off","menu_overlay":"off","menu_overlay_colour":"rgba(0,0,0,0.7)","desktop_menu_width":"","desktop_menu_width_unit":"%","desktop_menu_positioning":"absolute","desktop_menu_side":"left","desktop_menu_to_hide":"","use_current_theme_location":"off","mega_menu":{"225":"off","227":"off","229":"off","228":"off","226":"off"},"desktop_submenu_open_animation":"none","desktop_submenu_open_animation_speed":"100ms","desktop_submenu_open_on_click":"off","desktop_menu_hide_and_show":"off","menu_name":"Default Menu","menu_to_use":"primary-navigation","different_menu_for_mobile":"off","menu_to_use_in_mobile":"main-menu","use_mobile_menu":"on","use_tablet_menu":"on","use_desktop_menu":"off","menu_display_on":"all-pages","menu_to_hide":"","submenu_descriptions_on":"off","custom_walker":"","menu_background_colour":"#2775aa","menu_depth":"5","smooth_scroll_on":"off","smooth_scroll_speed":"500","menu_font_icons":{"id":["225"],"icon":[""]},"menu_links_height":"40","menu_links_height_unit":"px","menu_links_line_height":"40","menu_links_line_height_unit":"px","menu_depth_0":"5","menu_depth_0_unit":"%","menu_font_size":"13","menu_font_size_unit":"px","menu_font":"","menu_font_weight":"normal","menu_text_alignment":"left","menu_text_letter_spacing":"","menu_word_wrap":"off","menu_link_colour":"#ffffff","menu_link_hover_colour":"#ffffff","menu_current_link_colour":"#ffffff","menu_current_link_hover_colour":"#ffffff","menu_item_background_colour":"#2775aa","menu_item_background_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","menu_current_item_background_colour":"#212121","menu_current_item_background_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","menu_border_width":"1","menu_border_width_unit":"px","menu_item_border_colour":"#ffffff","menu_item_border_colour_hover":"#212121","menu_current_item_border_colour":"#212121","menu_current_item_border_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","submenu_links_height":"40","submenu_links_height_unit":"px","submenu_links_line_height":"40","submenu_links_line_height_unit":"px","menu_depth_side":"left","menu_depth_1":"10","menu_depth_1_unit":"%","menu_depth_2":"15","menu_depth_2_unit":"%","menu_depth_3":"20","menu_depth_3_unit":"%","menu_depth_4":"25","menu_depth_4_unit":"%","submenu_item_background_colour":"#212121","submenu_item_background_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","submenu_current_item_background_colour":"#212121","submenu_current_item_background_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","submenu_border_width":"1","submenu_border_width_unit":"px","submenu_item_border_colour":"#212121","submenu_item_border_colour_hover":"#212121","submenu_current_item_border_colour":"#212121","submenu_current_item_border_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","submenu_font_size":"13","submenu_font_size_unit":"px","submenu_font":"","submenu_font_weight":"normal","submenu_text_letter_spacing":"","submenu_text_alignment":"left","submenu_link_colour":"#ffffff","submenu_link_hover_colour":"#ffffff","submenu_current_link_colour":"#ffffff","submenu_current_link_hover_colour":"#ffffff","inactive_arrow_shape":"\u25bc","active_arrow_shape":"\u25b2","inactive_arrow_font_icon":"","active_arrow_font_icon":"","
690inactive_arrow_image":"","active_arrow_image":"","submenu_arrow_width":"40","submenu_arrow_width_unit":"px","submenu_arrow_height":"39","submenu_arrow_height_unit":"px","arrow_position":"right","menu_sub_arrow_shape_colour":"#ffffff","menu_sub_arrow_shape_hover_colour":"#ffffff","menu_sub_arrow_shape_colour_active":"#ffffff","menu_sub_arrow_shape_hover_colour_active":"#ffffff","menu_sub_arrow_border_width":"1","menu_sub_arrow_border_width_unit":"px","menu_sub_arrow_border_colour":"#ffffff","menu_sub_arrow_border_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","menu_sub_arrow_border_colour_active":"#212121","menu_sub_arrow_border_hover_colour_active":"#3f3f3f","menu_sub_arrow_background_colour":"#2775aa","menu_sub_arrow_background_hover_colour":"#3f3f3f","menu_sub_arrow_background_colour_active":"#212121","menu_sub_arrow_background_hover_colour_active":"#3f3f3f","fade_submenus":"off","fade_submenus_side":"left","fade_submenus_delay":"100","fade_submenus_speed":"500","use_slide_effect":"off","slide_effect_back_to_text":"Back","accordion_animation":"off","auto_expand_all_submenus":"off","auto_expand_current_submenus":"off","menu_item_click_to_trigger_submenu":"off","button_width":"50","button_width_unit":"px","button_height":"50","button_height_unit":"px","button_background_colour":"#000000","button_background_colour_hover":"#000000","button_background_colour_active":"#000000","toggle_button_border_radius":"5","button_transparent_background":"off","button_left_or_right":"right","button_position_type":"fixed","button_distance_from_side":"5","button_distance_from_side_unit":"%","button_top":"3","button_top_unit":"px","button_push_with_animation":"off","button_click_animation":"boring","button_line_margin":"5","button_line_margin_unit":"px","button_line_width":"25","button_line_width_unit":"px","button_line_height":"3","button_line_height_unit":"px","button_line_colour":"#ffffff","button_line_colour_hover":"#ffffff","button_line_colour_active":"#ffffff","button_font_icon":"","button_font_icon_when_clicked":"","button_image":"","button_image_when_clicked":"","button_title":"Menu","button_title_open":"","button_title_position":"bottom","menu_container_columns":"","button_font":"","button_font_size":"11","button_font_size_unit":"px","button_title_line_height":"13","button_title_line_height_unit":"px","button_text_colour":"#ffffff","button_trigger_type_click":"on","button_trigger_type_hover":"off","button_click_trigger":"#responsive-menu-button","items_order":{"title":"on","menu":"on","search":"on","additional content":"","social-icons":""},"menu_title":"","menu_title_link":"","menu_title_link_location":"_self","menu_title_image":"","menu_title_font_icon":"","menu_title_section_padding":{"top":"10%","right":"5%","bottom":"0%","left":"5%"},"menu_title_background_colour":"#212121","menu_title_background_hover_colour":"#212121","menu_title_font_size":"13","menu_title_font_size_unit":"px","menu_title_alignment":"center","menu_title_font_weight":"400","menu_title_font_family":"","menu_title_colour":"#ffffff","menu_title_hover_colour":"#ffffff","menu_title_image_width":"","menu_title_image_width_unit":"%","menu_title_image_height":"","menu_title_image_height_unit":"px","menu_additional_content":"","menu_additional_section_padding":{"top":"0px","right":"5%","bottom":"0px","left":"5%"},"menu_additional_content_font_size":"16","menu_additional_content_font_size_unit":"px","menu_additional_content_alignment":"center","menu_additional_content_colour":"#ffffff","menu_social_icons":[],"menu_social_icons_size":"24","menu_social_icons_size_unit":"px","menu_social_icons_layout":"horizontal","menu_social_icons_alignment":"center","menu_social_icons_gap":"10","menu_social_icons_gap_unit":"px","menu_social_icons_section_padding":{"top":"0%","right":"0%","bottom":"0%","left":"0%"},"menu_search_box_text":"Search","menu_search_box_code":"","menu_search_section_padding":{"top":"0px","right":"5%","bottom":"0px","left":"5%"},"menu_search_box_height":"45","menu_search_box_height_unit":"px","menu_search_box_border_radius":"30","menu_search_box_text_colour":"#333333","menu_search_box_background_colour":"#ffffff","menu_search_box_placeholder_colour":"#c7c7cd","menu_search_box_border_colour":"#dadada","menu_section_padding":{"top":"0px","right":"0px","bottom":"0px","left":"0px"},"menu_width":"75","menu_width_unit":"%","menu_maximum_width":"","menu_maximum_width_unit":"px","menu_minimum_width":"","menu_minimum_width_unit":"px","menu_auto_height":"off","menu_container_padding":{"top":"0px","right":"0px","bottom":"0px","left":"0px"},"menu_container_background_colour":"#2775aa","menu_background_image":"","animation_type":"slide","menu_appear_from":"top","animation_speed":"0.5","page_wrapper":"","menu_close_on_body_click":"off","menu_close_on_scroll":"off","menu_close_on_link_click":"off","enable_touch_gestures":"off","hamburger_position_selector":"","menu_id":6289,"active_toggle_contents":"\u25b2","inactive_toggle_contents":"\u25bc"}]}; 691//# sourceURL=rmp_menu_scripts-js-extra 692</script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 692
692
693<script id="rmp_menu_scripts-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/responsive-menu/v4.0.0/assets/js/rmp-menu.js?ver=4.7.3"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 693
693
694<script id="third-party-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/includes/js/third-party.js?ver=c495499e2999688f9a3fa374cd169d5f"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 694
694
695<script id="modernizr-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/includes/js/modernizr.js?ver=2.6.2"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 695
695
696<script id="flexslider-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/includes/js/jquery.flexslider.min.js?ver=c495499e2999688f9a3fa374cd169d5f"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 696
696
697<script id="general-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/includes/js/general.js?ver=c495499e2999688f9a3fa374cd169d5f"></script>
697 698 699<!-- Adjust the website width --> 700<style type="text/css"> 701 .col-full, #wrapper { max-width: 1050px !important; } 702</style> 703 704<link rel="https://api.w.org/" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-json/" /><link rel="alternate" title="JSON" type="application/json" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-json/wp/v2/pages/1394" /><link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/xmlrpc.php?rsd" /> 705<link rel="canonical" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/" /> 706<link rel='shortlink' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/' />
707<script type="text/javascript"> 708 (function(c) { 709 var script = document.createElement("script"); 710 script.src = "https://js.memberful.com/embed.js"; 711 script.onload = function() { Memberful.setup(c) }; 712 document.head.appendChild(script); 713 })({ 714 site: ["https:\/\/sociologicalscience.memberful.com"] }); 715</script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 715
715
716<script type='text/javascript'> 717 var polyfilter_scriptpath = 'https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/nifty-modal-popup/js/lib/'; 718 var polyfilter_skip_stylesheets = true; 719 </script>
719
719<script> 720 // Exit intent 721 722 var karipidhi= 0; 723 724 function skomfare2_modalPopup_addEvent_mouse_exit(obj, evt, fn) { 725 if (obj.addEventListener) { 726 obj.addEventListener(evt, fn, false); 727 } 728 else if (obj.attachEvent) { 729 obj.attachEvent("on" + evt, fn); 730 } 731 } 732 </script>
732 733 734<!-- Custom CSS Styling --> 735<style type="text/css"> 736#logo .site-title, #logo .site-description { display:none; } 737body {background-color:#ebeef0;background-image:url(https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/subtle-pattern-1-300x300.jpg);background-repeat:repeat;background-position:top left;background-attachment:scroll;border-top:6px solid #2775AA;} 738#header {background-color:#ffffff;background-repeat:repeat;background-position:left top;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:20px;padding-top:40px;padding-bottom:20px;border:0px solid ;} 739#logo .site-title a {font:bold 40px/1em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#222222;} 740#logo .site-description {font:300 13px/1em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#999999;} 741#inner-wrapper {padding-left:30px; padding-right:30px;background-color:#ffffff;border-left:5px solid #ffffff;border-right:5px solid #ffffff;border-radius:1px;box-shadow: 0px 1px 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);} .col-full { width: auto; } @media only screen and (max-width:767px) { #inner-wrapper { margin:0; border-radius:none; padding-left:1em; padding-right: 1em; border: none; } } 742body, p { font:300 14px/1.5em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#555555; } 743h1 { font:bold 28px/1.2em 'PT Sans Narrow', arial, sans-serif;color:#222222; }h2 { font:bold 24px/1.2em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#222222; }h3 { font:bold 20px/1.2em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#222222; }h4 { font:bold 16px/1.2em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#222222; }h5 { font:bold 14px/1.2em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#222222; }h6 { font:300 9px/1.2em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#a8a5a8; } 744.page-title, .post .title, .page .title {font:bold 15px/1.1em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#222222;} 745.post .title a:link, .post .title a:visited, .page .title a:link, .page .title a:visited {color:#222222} 746.post-meta { font:300 12px/1.5em 'PT Sans Narrow', arial, sans-serif;color:#999999; } 747.entry, .entry p{ font:300 15px/1.5em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#555555; } 748.post-more {font:300 13px/1.5em PT Sans Narrow;color:;border-top:0px solid #e6e6e6;border-bottom:0px solid #e6e6e6;} 749#post-author, #connect {border-top:1px solid #e6e6e6;border-bottom:1px solid #e6e6e6;border-left:1px solid #e6e6e6;border-right:1px solid #e6e6e6;border-radius:5px;-moz-border-radius:5px;-webkit-border-radius:5px;background-color:#fafafa} 750.nav-entries a, .woo-pagination { font:normal 15px/1em 'PT Sans Narrow', arial, sans-serif;color:#888; } 751.woo-pagination a, .woo-pagination a:hover {color:#888!important} 752.widget h3 {font:bold 18px/1.2em PT Sans Narrow;color:#555555;border-bottom:1px solid #e6e6e6;} 753.widget_recent_comments li, #twitter li { border-color: #e6e6e6;} 754.widget p, .widget .textwidget { font:normal 1em/1.5em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#555555; } 755.widget {font:normal 1em/1.5em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#555555;border-radius:1px;-moz-border-radius:1px;-webkit-border-radius:1px;} 756#tabs .inside li a, .widget_woodojo_tabs .tabbable .tab-pane li a { font:bold 14px/1.5em 'PT Sans', arial, sans-serif;color:#555555; } 757#tabs .inside li span.meta, .widget_woodojo_tabs .tabbable .tab-pane li span.meta { font:300 11px/1.5em 'PT Sans', arial, sans-serif;color:#999999; } 758#tabs ul.wooTabs li a, .widget_woodojo_tabs .tabbable .nav-tabs li a { font:300 11px/2em 'PT Sans', arial, sans-serif;color:#999999; } 759@media only screen and (min-width:768px) { 760ul.nav li a, #navigation ul.rss a, #navigation .cart-contents, #navigation ul.rss { font:bold 18px/1em 'PT Sans Narrow', arial, sans-serif;color:#2775AA; } #navigation ul.rss li a:before { color:#2775AA;} 761#navigation ul.nav > li a:hover, #navigation ul.nav > li:hover, #navigation ul.nav li ul {background-color:#f7fcfd!important} 762#navigation ul.nav li ul { border: 0px solid #dbdbdb; } 763#navigation ul.nav > li > ul { left: 0; } 764#navigation ul.nav > li { border-right: 0px solid #dbdbdb; }#navigation ul.nav > li >
764 ul { left: 0; } 765#navigation ul.nav li.current_page_item a, #navigation ul.nav li.current_page_parent a, #navigation ul.nav li.current-menu-ancestor a, #navigation ul.nav li.current-cat a, #navigation ul.nav li.current-menu-item a { background-color:#ffffff; } 766#navigation ul.nav li.current_page_item a, #navigation ul.nav li.current_page_parent a, #navigation ul.nav li.current-menu-ancestor a, #navigation ul.nav li.current-cat a, #navigation ul.nav li.current-menu-item a { color:#333333; } 767#navigation { box-shadow: none; -moz-box-shadow: none; -webkit-box-shadow: none; }#navigation ul li:first-child, #navigation ul li:first-child a { border-radius:1px 0 0 1px; -moz-border-radius:1px 0 0 1px; -webkit-border-radius:1px 0 0 1px; } 768#navigation {background:#ffffff;border-top:0px solid #dbdbdb;border-bottom:0px solid #dbdbdb;border-left:0px solid #dbdbdb;border-right:0px solid #dbdbdb;border-radius:1px; -moz-border-radius:1px; -webkit-border-radius:1px;} 769#top, #top ul.nav li ul li a:hover { background:#fff;} 770#top ul.nav li a:hover, #top ul.nav li.current_page_item a, #top ul.nav li.current_page_parent a,#top ul.nav li.current-menu-ancestor a,#top ul.nav li.current-cat a,#top ul.nav li.current-menu-item a,#top ul.nav li.sfHover, #top ul.nav li ul, #top ul.nav > li:hover a, #top ul.nav li ul li a { color:#d45a23!important;} 771#top ul.nav li a:hover, #top ul.nav li.current_page_item a, #top ul.nav li.current_page_parent a,#top ul.nav li.current-menu-ancestor a,#top ul.nav li.current-cat a,#top ul.nav li.current-menu-item a,#top ul.nav li.sfHover, #top ul.nav li ul, #top ul.nav > li:hover { background:#fff;} 772#top ul.nav li a { font:normal 12px/1.6em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#ddd; } 773} 774#footer, #footer p { font:300 13px/1.4em 'PT Sans', arial, sans-serif;color:#999999; } 775#footer {background-color:#ffffff;border-top:1px solid #dbdbdb;border-bottom:0px solid ;border-left:0px solid ;border-right:0px solid ;border-radius:1px; -moz-border-radius:1px; -webkit-border-radius:1px;} 776.magazine #loopedSlider .content h2.title a { font:bold 24px/1em Arial, sans-serif;color:#ffffff; } 777.magazine #loopedSlider .content .excerpt p { font:300 13px/1.5em Arial, sans-serif;color:#cccccc; } 778.magazine .block .post .title, .magazine .block .post .title a { font:bold 18px/1.2em "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, sans-serif;color:#222222; } 779.business #loopedSlider .content h2 { font:bold 24px/1em 'PT Sans Narrow', arial, sans-serif;color:#ffffff; } 780.business #loopedSlider .content h2.title a { font:bold 24px/1em 'PT Sans Narrow', arial, sans-serif;color:#ffffff; } 781#wrapper .business #loopedSlider .content p { font:normal 14px/1.5em 'Merriweather', arial, sans-serif;color:#ffffff; } 782.archive_header { font:bold 18px/1em 'PT Sans Narrow', arial, sans-serif;color:#222222; } 783.archive_header {border-bottom:1px solid #e6e6e6;} 784</style> 785 786<!-- Custom Favicon --> 787<link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/favicon.png"/> 788<!-- Options Panel Custom CSS --> 789<style type="text/css"> 790@media only screen and (min-width: 768px) { 791 #navigation { 792 float: right; 793 width: auto; 794 top: 19px; 795 clear:none; 796 max-width: 500px; // This can be changed 797 } 798} 799 800/*.archive_header{ 801 display: none; 802} */ 803 804.post-meta { 805 display: none; 806} 807 808#loopedSlider .content h2, 809#loopedSlider .content p { 810 background: rgba(0,0,0,0.5); 811 min-width 50%; 812} 813 814.circular { 815 width: 150px; 816 height:150px; 817 -webkit-border: none; 818 -moz-border: none; 819 border: none; 820 -webkit-border-radius:10%; 821 -moz-border-radius:10%; 822 border-radius:10%; 823 margin:25px; 824 float: right; 825 826} 827 828.circular img { 829 width: 150px; 830 height:150px; 831 -webkit-border: none; 832 -moz-border: none; 833 border: none; 834 -webkit-border-radius:10%; 835 -moz-border-radius:10%; 836 border-radius:10%; 837 float: right; 838 transition: transform 0.5s ease; 839 transform: scale(0.8); 840} 841 842.circular img:hover { 843 transform: scale(.9); 844 /* 845 transition: all 400ms cubic-bezier(0.250, 0.460, 0.450, 0.940); 846 */ 847} 848 849#editteamname {position:absolute; top:50%; height:240px; float: right; margin-top:-120px; } 850 851.social-links { position:relative; top:-32px; } 852</style> 853 854 855<!-- Woo Shortcodes CSS --> 856<link href="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/functions/css/sh
856ortcodes.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> 857 858<!-- Custom Stylesheet --> 859<link href="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/custom.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> 860 861<!-- Theme version --> 862<meta name="generator" content="sociologicalscience 0.1.0" /> 863<meta name="generator" content="Canvas 5.3.0" /> 864<meta name="generator" content="WooFramework 6.2.9" /> 865 866<!-- Google Webfonts --> 867<link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=PT+Sans+Narrow%3Aregular%2C700%7CPT+Sans%3Aregular%2Citalic%2C700%2C700italic%7CMerriweather%3A300%2C300italic%2Cregular%2Citalic%2C700%2C700italic%2C900%2C900italic" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> 868 869<!-- Always force latest IE rendering engine (even in intranet) & Chrome Frame --> 870<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1" /> 871 872<!-- Mobile viewport scale --> 873<meta content="initial-scale=1.0, maximum-scale=1.0, user-scalable=yes" name="viewport"/> 874<style id="wp-custom-css"> 875.page-id-2667 #sidebar{ 876 display:none !important; 877} 878.circular img{ 879 object-fit: cover; 880} 881.tab-comment-and-rejoinder, .tab-comment{ 882 display: flex; 883 gap: 25px; 884} 885</style> 886 887 <!-- Woo Slider Setup --> 888
888<script type="text/javascript"> 889 jQuery(window).load(function() { 890 var args = {}; 891 args.useCSS = false; 892 args.animation = 'slide'; 893 args.slideshow = true; 894 895 args.slideshowSpeed = 8000; 896 args.animationSpeed = 600; 897 args.controlNav = false; 898 args.pauseOnHover = false; 899 args.manualControls = '.pagination-wrap .flex-control-nav > li'; 900 args.start = function ( slider ) { 901 slider.next( '.slider-pagination' ).fadeIn(); 902 } 903 904 jQuery( '.woo-slideshow' ).each( function ( i ) { 905 jQuery( this ).flexslider( args ); 906 jQuery( this ) .find( 'a.flex-prev, a.flex-next' ).addClass( 'icon' ); 907 }); 908 }); 909 </script>
909 910 <!-- /Woo Slider Setup --> 911 912 913
914<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/3.2.1/jquery.min.js"></script>
914 915
916<script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/sociologicalscience/citation_modal.js"></script>
916 917
918<script type='text/javascript' src='https://d1bxh8uas1mnw7.cloudfront.net/assets/embed.js'></script>
918 919 920 921 922</head> 923 924<body class="home wp-singular page-template page-template-template-magazine page-template-template-magazine-php page page-id-1394 wp-theme-canvas wp-child-theme-sociologicalscience metaslider-plugin chrome alt-style-default boxed-layout two-col-left width-1050 two-col-left-1050"> 925 926 927<div id="wrapper"> 928 929 930 931 <div id="inner-wrapper"> 932 933 934 935 <h3 class="nav-toggle icon"><a href="#navigation">Navigation</a></h3> 936 937 938 939 <header id="header" class="col-full"> 940 941 942 943 <div id="logo"> 944<a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/" title="A new journal for the best in sociological research"><img src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/sociologicalscience/images/logo-title.png" alt="Sociological Science" /></a> 945<h1 class="site-title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/">Sociological Science</a></h1> 946<span class="site-description">A new journal for the best in sociological research</span> 947</div> 948<div id="scholastica-submission-button" class="scho_btn"><a href="https://sociological-science.scholasticahq.com/for-authors" style="outline: none; border: none;"><img style="outline: none; border: none;" src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/submit_via_scholastica.png" alt="Submit to Sociological Science"></a></div><nav id="navigation" class="col-full" role="navigation"> 949 950 <section class="menus"> 951 952 953 <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com" class="nav-home"><span>Home</span></a> 954 955 <h3>Primary Navigation</h3><ul id="main-nav" class="nav fl"><li id="menu-item-171" class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-171"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></li> 956<li id="menu-item-560" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-has-children menu-item-560"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/">For Authors</a> 957<ul class="sub-menu"> 958 <li id="menu-item-385" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-385"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/editorial-and-review-process/">Editorial and Review Process</a></li> 959 <li id="menu-item-522" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-522"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/reactions-and-comments/">Reactions and Comments</a></li> 960 <li id="menu-item-360" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-360"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/publication-criteria/">Publication Criteria</a></li> 961 <li id="menu-item-361" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-361"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/submission-guidelines/">Submission Guidelines</a></li> 962 <li id="menu-item-6687" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-6687"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/reproducibility-policy/">Reproducibility Policy</a></li> 963 <li id="menu-item-519" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-519"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/manuscript-preparation/">Manuscript Preparation</a></li> 964 <li id="menu-item-546" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-546"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/submission-and-publication-fees/">Fee Structure</a></li> 965</ul> 966</li> 967<li id="menu-item-167" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-has-children menu-item-167"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/">About</a> 968<ul class="sub-menu"> 969 <li id="menu-item-359" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-359"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/journal-information/">Journal Information</a></li> 970 <li id="menu-item-168" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-168"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/editteam/">Editorial Team</a></li> 971 <li id="menu-item-380" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-380"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/journal-structure/">Journal Structure</a></li> 972 <li id="menu-item-3491" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-3491"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/publisher/">Publisher</a></li> 973</ul> 974</li> 975<li id="menu-item-3733" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-3733"><a href="https://sociological-science.scholasticahq.com/for-authors">Submit Article</a></li> 976<li id="menu-item-twitter" class="menu-item menu-item-type-social menu-item-object-social menu-item-twitter"><a href="https://www.twitter.com/sociologicalsci" title="Follow us on Twitter"><img src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/images/twitter.png" title="Follow us on Twitter" alt=""/></a></li> 977</ul> </section><!-- /.menus --> 978 979 <a href="#top" class="nav-close"><span>Return to Content</span></a> 980 981</nav> 982 983 984 985 </header> 986 987 988 <!-- #content Starts -->
989 <div id="content" class="col-full magazine"> 990 991 <div id="main-sidebar-container"> 992 993 <!-- #main Starts --> 994 <section id="main"> 995 <div class="breadcrumb breadcrumbs woo-breadcrumbs"><div class="breadcrumb-trail"><span class="trail-before"><span class="breadcrumb-title">You are here:</span></span> <span class="trail-end">Home</span></div></div> 996 997 998 999 <div id="home-img"> 1000 <div id="metaslider-id-6240" style="width: 100%;" class="ml-slider-3-113-0 metaslider metaslider-flex metaslider-6240 ml-slider ms-theme-default nav-hidden" role="region" aria-label="Homepage Slider" data-height="255" data-width="600"> 1001 <div id="metaslider_container_6240"> 1002 <div id="metaslider_6240"> 1003 <ul class='slides'> 1004 <li style="display: block; width: 100%;" class="slide-6242 ms-image " aria-roledescription="slide" data-date="2022-01-03 15:15:46" data-filename="ss-home3.png" data-slide-type="image"><img src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/ss-home3.png" height="255" width="600" alt="Sociological Science: Recent Research" class="slider-6240 slide-6242 msDefaultImage" title="ss-home3" /></li> 1005 <li style="display: none; width: 100%;" class="slide-6247 ms-image " aria-roledescription="slide" data-date="2022-01-03 20:49:03" data-filename="timon-studler-ABGaVhJxwDQ-unsplash-600x255.jpg" data-slide-type="image"><img src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/timon-studler-ABGaVhJxwDQ-unsplash-600x255.jpg" height="255" width="600" alt="Photo by Timon Studler on Unsplash" class="slider-6240 slide-6247 msDefaultImage" title="timon-studler-ABGaVhJxwDQ-unsplash" /></li> 1006 <li style="display: none; width: 100%;" class="slide-6245 ms-image " aria-roledescription="slide" data-date="2022-01-03 15:16:15" data-filename="ss-home6.png" data-slide-type="image"><img src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/ss-home6.png" height="255" width="600" alt="Sociological Science: Recent Research" class="slider-6240 slide-6245 msDefaultImage" title="ss-home6" /></li> 1007 <li style="display: none; width: 100%;" class="slide-6244 ms-image " aria-roledescription="slide" data-date="2022-01-03 15:15:46" data-filename="ss-home15.png" data-slide-type="image"><img src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/ss-home15.png" height="255" width="600" alt="Sociological Science: Recent Research" class="slider-6240 slide-6244 msDefaultImage" title="ss-home15" /></li> 1008 </ul> 1009 </div> 1010 1011 </div> 1012</div> 1013 1014 </div> 1015 <div class="fix"></div> 1016 <!-- <h1 style="font-family:'PT Sans Narrow', sans-serif; color:#999999; margin-top:-20px;">Latest Research</h1> --> 1017 1018<div class="fix"></div> 1019 <div class="block"> 1020 <article class="post-8389 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-high-skilled-migration tag-human-capital-loss tag-international-inequality tag-science-of-science tag-sociology-of-science"> 1021 <header> 1022 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-43-1132/" rel="bookmark" title="Developing Countries Face Falling Circulation Rates and Rising Migration Losses in Science">Developing Countries Face Falling Circulation Rates and Rising Migration Losses in Science</a></h2> </header> 1023 1024<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-09-21T09:00:45-0700">September 21, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1025 <section class="entry"> 1026 1027 <p>Andrew C. Herman, Jens Peter Andersen, Mathias Wullum Nielsen</p> 1028<h6>Sociological Science September 21, 2026<br /> 102910.15195/v13.a43</h6> 1030<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1031<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1032<div class="md-content"> 1033<h3>Abstract</h3> 1034<div> 1035As universities and doctoral training expand in low- and middle-income (LMI) countries, transnational scientific mobility is rising. This trend is often framed as âbrain circulation,â implying a mutual exchange of talent and knowledge to the benefit of all countries involved. We track 12 million scientists over 15 years, stratified by performance, to weigh this view against the prediction from structural dependency theory that expanding scientific capacity in lower-income countries may intensify rather than attenuate the loss of top-performing talent to wealthier countries. Our findings temper the brain circulation account. Circulatory migration rates have declined over time, even as the net losses from migration for LMI countries have risen. Not one of the countries that together produce 90 percent of LMI countriesâ top-cited early-career scientists achieves a net migration gain relative to high-income countries. It has become more difficult for developing countries to offset migratory losses with the spillovers from circulation.<br /> 1036<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1037<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1038</div> 1039</div> 1040</div> 1041<div class="topLinks"> 1042<p>
1042<div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/september/SocSci_v13_1132to1158.pdf" title="Download Herman (corrected title)" target="_blank">PDF (183 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-43-1132/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-43-1132/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1043<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a43" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1044</div> 1045<p><div id="tabs-67" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1046<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1047<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1048<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1049<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1050</ul> 1051<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1052As universities and doctoral training expand in low- and middle-income (LMI) countries, transnational scientific mobility is rising. This trend is often framed as âbrain circulation,â implying a mutual exchange of talent and knowledge to the benefit of all countries involved. We track 12 million scientists over 15 years, stratified by performance, to weigh this view against the prediction from structural dependency theory that expanding scientific capacity in lower-income countries may intensify rather than attenuate the loss of top-performing talent to wealthier countries. Our findings temper the brain circulation account. Circulatory migration rates have declined over time, even as the net losses from migration for LMI countries have risen. Not one of the countries that together produce 90 percent of LMI countriesâ top-cited early-career scientists achieves a net migration gain relative to high-income countries. It has become more difficult for developing countries to offset migratory losses with the spillovers from circulation.</p> 1053 1054<table id="tablepress-7" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1055<tbody> 1056<tr class="row-1"> 1057 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1058</tr> 1059</tbody> 1060</table> 1061<!-- #tablepress-7 from cache --> 1062<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1063<div class="tab tab-author-information">Andrew C. Herman: Department of Sociology, University of Copenhagen.<br /> 1064E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1065<p>Jens Peter Andersen: Danish Centre for Studies in Research and Research Policy, Aarhus University.<br /> 1066E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1067<p>Mathias Wullum Nielsen: Department of Sociology, University of Copenhagen.<br /> 1068E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1069<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> The authors would like to thank Andrés Castro, Charles J. Gomez, Kristian Bernt Karlson, and Vincent Larivière for their feedback on this work. Open access funding provided by Copenhagen University. This project was supported by Carlsbergfondet (Mathias W. Nielsen, CF19-0566), the Independent Research Fund Denmark (Mathias W. Nielsen, 3121-00015B; Jens Peter Andersen, 0133-00165B).</p> 1070<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1071<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/september/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_1132to1158_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1072<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> All codes used in conducting this analysis are available at the OSF project repository here: <a href="https://osf.io/tkh2a/">
1072https://osf.io/tkh2a/</a>. Aggregated data are available in the same repository so that plots and analyses can be reproduced. The disaggregated data from the Web of Science as well as the augmented version from the Center for Science and Technology Studies at Leiden University are proprietary and as such cannot be shared.<br /> 1073</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1074<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1075<ul> 1076<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Herman, Andrew C., Jens Peter Andersen, and Mathias Wullum Nielsen. 2026. âDeveloping Countries Face Falling Circulation Rates and Rising Migration Losses in Scienceâ Sociological Science 13: 1132-1158.</li> 1077<li><strong>Received</strong>: June 2, 2026</li> 1078<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: July 31, 2026</li> 1079<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Stephen Vaisey, Herman van de Werfhorst</li> 1080<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a43</li> 1081</ul> 1082<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1083<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1084</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1085<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1085<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1085</div> 1086<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1087<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-43-1132/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1088</div> 1089 </p> 1090 1091 1092 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1093 <div class="post-more"> 1094 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-43-1132/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1095</article><!-- /.post --> 1096 </div><!--/.block--> 1097 <div class="block last"> 1098 <article class="post-8379 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-ethnic-conflict tag-ethnic-power-relations tag-natural-resources tag-political-exclusion tag-resource-curse"> 1099 <header> 1100 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-42-1107/" rel="bookmark" title="Ethnopolitical Exclusion and Resource Conflict">Ethnopolitical Exclusion and Resource Conflict</a></h2> </header> 1101 1102<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-09-14T09:00:35-0700">September 14, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1103 <section class="entry"> 1104 1105 <p>Wali Reheman</p> 1106<h6>Sociological Science September 14, 2026<br /> 110710.15195/v13.a42</h6> 1108<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1109<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1110<div class="md-content"> 1111<h3>Abstract</h3> 1112<div> 1113Why do natural resources fuel ethnic conflict in some ethnic homelands but not others? This article argues that the answer turns on the boundary between active discrimination and passive powerlessness. Among excluded groups, lootable resources raise conflict risk only where the state actively discriminates, not where groups are merely powerless; among included groups, the same resources predict lower risk. No rival account reproduces this positive/null/negative gradient. The boundary governs whether these groups fight, not what they fight over: petroleum pushes discriminated and powerless groups alike toward territorial conflict, wherever the oil sits. Two-way fixed-effects estimates on 859 ethnic groups in 150 countries (1960â2020) establish both patterns. The conflict-generating mechanism thus lies between a group and its state, so country-level resource-curse measures, averaged across the nation, can miss the within-country boundary that actually divides conflict from peace.<br /> 1114<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1115<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1116</div> 1117</div> 1118</div> 1119<div class="topLinks"> 1120<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/september/SocSci_v13_1107to1131.pdf" title="Download Reheman" target="_blank">PDF (206 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-42-1107/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-42-1107/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1121<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a42" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1122</div> 1123<p><div id="tabs-46" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1124<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1125<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1126<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1127<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1128</ul> 1129<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1130Why do natural resources fuel ethnic conflict in some ethnic homelands but not others? This article argues that the answer turns on the boundary between active discrimination and passive powerlessness. Among excluded groups, lootable resources raise conflict risk only where the state actively discriminates, not where groups are merely powerless; among included groups, the same resources predict lower risk. No rival account reproduces this positive/null/negative gradient. The boundary governs whether these groups fight, not what they fight over: petroleum pushes discriminated and powerless groups alike toward territorial conflict, wherever the oil sits. Two-way fixed-effects estimates on 859 ethnic groups in 150 countries (1960â2020) establish both patterns. The conflict-generating mechanism thus lies between a group and its state, so country-level resource-curse measures, averaged across the nation, can miss the within-country boundary that actually divi
1130des conflict from peace.</p> 1131 1132<table id="tablepress-7-no-2" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1133<tbody> 1134<tr class="row-1"> 1135 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1136</tr> 1137</tbody> 1138</table> 1139<!-- #tablepress-7-no-2 from cache --> 1140<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1141<div class="tab tab-author-information">Wali Reheman: Department of Government, American University.<br /> 1142E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1143<p><strong>Conflict of Interest:</strong> I declare no conflicts of interest and received no external funding for this research.</p> 1144<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1145<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> All data, code, and documentation necessary to reproduce every empirical result in this article are openly available at <a href="https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/S28Y4" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/S28Y4</a><br /> 1146</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1147<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1148<ul> 1149<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Reheman, Wali. 2026. âEthnopolitical Exclusion and Resource Conflictâ Sociological Science 13: 1107-1131.</li> 1150<li><strong>Received</strong>: May 13, 2026</li> 1151<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: July 29, 2026</li> 1152<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Arnout van de Rijt, Peter Bearman</li> 1153<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a42</li> 1154</ul> 1155<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1156<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1157</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1158<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1158<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1158</div> 1159<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1160<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-42-1107/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1161</div> 1162 </p> 1163 1164 1165 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1166 <div class="post-more"> 1167 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-42-1107/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1168</article><!-- /.post --> 1169 </div><!--/.block--> 1170<div class="fix"></div> <div class="block"> 1171 <article class="post-8363 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-china tag-labor-process tag-overwork tag-social-class tag-wage-inequality tag-working-time"> 1172 <header> 1173 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-41-1079/" rel="bookmark" title="Overwork Without Premium: The Persistent Class Gradient of Long Hours in China, 2006â2023">Overwork Without Premium: The Persistent Class Gradient of Long Hours in China, 2006â2023</a></h2> </header> 1174 1175<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-08-31T09:00:10-0700">August 31, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1176 <section class="entry"> 1177 1178 <p>Chen Ouyang</p> 1179<h6>Sociological Science August 31, 2026<br /> 118010.15195/v13.a41</h6> 1181<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1182<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1183<div class="md-content"> 1184<h3>Abstract</h3> 1185<div> 1186In the United States, overwork migrated up the class structure, and its hourly wage association turned from penalty to premium in aggregate estimates. The â996â controversy suggests China is replaying this elitization. I test both with 11 waves of the Chinese General Social Survey (2006â2023; 36,282 nonfarm workers), using wave-specific, subperiod, and full-period estimates. Neither is supported as a broad, durable pattern. Overwork stays concentrated among manual, service, and self-employed workers; a post-2015 rebound was not disproportionately professionalâmanual workers rose at least as muchâand was not detectably sustained in 2023. Overwork does not pay: overworkers log two-thirds more hours than comparable workers yet earn no more annually, and the hourly penaltyâdeepest for blue-collar employeesânarrowed partially after 2010 and remained negative in every wave. State-sector employment is associated with lower overwork throughout. Elitized overwork appears institution-dependent; the sample instead shows a non-elite overwork configuration.<br /> 1187<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1188<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1189</div> 1190</div> 1191</div> 1192<div class="topLinks"> 1193<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/SocSci_v13_1079to1106.pdf" title="Download Ouyang" target="_blank">PDF (414 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-41-1079/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-41-1079/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1194<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a41" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1195</div> 1196<p><div id="tabs-31" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1197<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1198<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1199<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1200<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1201</ul> 1202<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1203In the United States, overwork migrated up the class structure, and its hourly wage association turned from penalty to premium in aggregate estimates. The â996â controversy suggests China is replaying this elitization. I test both with 11 waves of the Chinese General Social Survey (2006â2023; 36,282 nonfarm workers), using wave-specific, subperiod, and full-period estimates. Neither is supported as a broad, durable pattern. Overwork stays concentrated among manual, service, and self-employed workers; a post-2015 rebound was not disproportionately professionalâmanual workers rose at least as muchâand was not detectably sustained in 2023. Overwork does not pay: overworkers log two-thirds more hours than comparable workers yet earn no more annually, and the hourly penaltyâdeepest for blue-collar employeesânarrowed partially after 2010 and remained negative in every wave. State-sector employment is associated with lower overwork throughout. Elitized overwork appears institution-dependent; the sample instead shows a non-elite overwork configuration.</p> 1204 1205<table id="tablepress-7-no-3" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1206<tbody> 1207<tr class="row-1"> 1208 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative
1208Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1209</tr> 1210</tbody> 1211</table> 1212<!-- #tablepress-7-no-3 from cache --> 1213<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1214<div class="tab tab-author-information">Chen Ouyang: School of Marxism, Huazhong University of Science and Technology.<br /> 1215E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1216<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> The author sincerely thanks Editor-in-Chief Ari Adut, the Deputy Editor, and the anonymous external reviewers for their careful reading and constructive suggestions. The author also thanks the Sociological Science editorial and production team for their meticulous work; the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) team at the National Survey Research Center, Renmin University of China, for making the data used in this study available; and Professor Hongshan Lü for his invaluable guidance throughout the research.</p> 1217<p><strong>Funding:</strong> This research received no external funding.</p> 1218<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1219<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_1079to1106_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1220<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> All analysis code, the cross-wave harmonization pipeline, archived numeric outputs, and documentation needed to reproduce every empirical result in this article are deposited at Zenodo: <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21709718">https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21709718</a>. The CGSS microdata cannot be redistributed under the CNSDA data-use agreement; the package documents, wave by wave, how registered researchers can obtain each file free of charge from the Chinese National Survey Data Archive (cnsda.org).<br /> 1221</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1222<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1223<ul> 1224<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Ouyang, Chen. 2026. âOverwork Without Premium: The Persistent Class Gradient of Long Hours in China, 2006â2023â Sociological Science 13: 1079-1106.</li> 1225<li><strong>Received</strong>: July 12, 2026</li> 1226<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: August 8, 2026</li> 1227<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Wei-hsin Yu</li> 1228<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a41</li> 1229</ul> 1230<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1231<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1232</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1233<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1233<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1233</div> 1234<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1235<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-41-1079/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1236</div> 1237 </p> 1238 1239 1240 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1241 <div class="post-more"> 1242 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-41-1079/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1243</article><!-- /.post --> 1244 </div><!--/.block--> 1245 <div class="block last"> 1246 <article class="post-8354 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-childrearing tag-family tag-parenting tag-social-class tag-socialization tag-video"> 1247 <header> 1248 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-40-1046/" rel="bookmark" title="Social Class Differences in Parenting? Revisiting Classed Childrearing through a Video-Ethnography of Mealtime">Social Class Differences in Parenting? Revisiting Classed Childrearing through a Video-Ethnography of Mealtime</a></h2> </header> 1249 1250<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-08-25T09:00:19-0700">August 25, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1251 <section class="entry"> 1252 1253 <p>Joanne W. Golann, Karen Phelan Kozlowski, Kara Mitchell Brennan</p> 1254<h6>Sociological Science August 25, 2026<br /> 125510.15195/v13.a40</h6> 1256<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1257<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1258<div class="md-content"> 1259<h3>Abstract</h3> 1260<div> 1261Sociological research has long established social class differences in childrearing strategies. However, recent studies suggest more heterogeneity by social class in parenting practices than previously recognized. In this article, we revisit familiesâ classed socialization processes by drawing from the New Jersey Families Study, a two-week, in-home video study of 21 families with young children, to examine how working-class and middle-class families interact with their children during mealtimes. Contrary to expectations, we found that social class did not neatly correspond to parenting styles, with half of families blending middle-class and working-class styles. This is one of the first sociological studies to closely observe the socialization of young children across different social classes. It is also one of few studies in sociology to use video-ethnographic data. Finally, this study challenges long-standing assumptions about class-based socialization, suggesting that in contemporary families, social class boundaries are much blurrier than previously believed when it comes to childrearing.<br /> 1262<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1263<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1264</div> 1265</div> 1266</div> 1267<div class="topLinks"> 1268<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/SocSci_v13_1046to1078.pdf" title="Download Golann" target="_blank">PDF (608 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-40-1046/#comments"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 1</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-40-1046/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1269<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a40" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1270</div> 1271<p><div id="tabs-76" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1272<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1273<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1274<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1275<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1276</ul> 1277<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1278Sociological research has long established social class differences in childrearing strategies. However, recent studies suggest more heterogeneity by social class in parenting practices than previously recognized. In this article, we revisit familiesâ classed socialization processes by drawing from the New Jersey Families Study, a two-week, in-home video study of 21 families with young children, to examine how working-class and middle-class families interact with their children during mealtimes. Contrary to expectations, we found that social class did not neatly correspond to parenting styles, with half of families blending middle-class and working-class styles. This is one of the first sociological studies to closely observe the socialization of young children across different social classes. It is also one of few studies in sociology to use video-ethnographic data. Finally, this study challenges long-standing assumptions about class-based socialization, suggesting that in contemporary families, social class boundaries are much blurrier than previously believed when it comes to childrearing.</p> 1279 1280<table id="tablepress-7-no-4" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1281<tbody> 1282<tr class="row-1"> 1283 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative
1283Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1284</tr> 1285</tbody> 1286</table> 1287<!-- #tablepress-7-no-4 from cache --> 1288<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1289<div class="tab tab-author-information">Joanne W. Golann: Department of Leadership, Policy, and Organizations, Vanderbilt University.<br /> 1290E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1291<p>Karen Phelan Kozlowski: School of Social Science and Global Studies, University of Southern Mississippi.<br /> 1292E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1293<p>Kara Mitchell Brennan: Department of Leadership, Policy, and Organizations, Vanderbilt University.<br /> 1294E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1295<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> We thank Kanoe Bonilla, Emma Bufkin, Maria Maria Castillo, Sheila Chau, Ana Delgado, Catherine Duggan, Richard Hall, Susanna Harpold, Shihe Luan, Angelina Ma, Audrey Morris, Ben Rubin, Monica Shen, Erin Smith, and Grace Xu for research assistance on the New Jersey Families Study. We are grateful to Thomas Espenshade, Boriana Pratt, and Pamela Klebanov for data access and support. Corresponding author: [email protected].</p> 1296<p><strong>Other Statements and Declarations:</strong> This research has been approved by the Princeton University Institutional Research Board. Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained for all families.</p> 1297<p>The authors have no financial or non-financial interests directly or indirectly related to the work to disclose.</p> 1298<p>The authors give consent to publish this manuscript.</p> 1299<p>Partial support for this work comes from the National Science FoundationâSociology Grant #2214309, American Sociological Association Fund for the Advancement of the Discipline, Vanderbilt University Discovery Funds and Seeding Success grants, and the Peabody College Small Grants for Research.</p> 1300<p>The authors report no financial or non-financial interests directly or indirectly related to the work.<br /> 1301</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1302<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><br /> 1303<strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> Data are not publicly available due to informed consent agreements. For researchers interested in using the New Jersey Families Study data, please contact Joanne Golann for more information.</p> 1304<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1305<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1306<ul> 1307<li><strong>Citation</strong>: W. Golann, Joanne, Karen Phelan Kozlowski, Kara Mitchell Brennan. 2026. âSocial Class Differences in Parenting? Revisiting Classed Childrearing through a Video-Ethnography of Mealtimeâ Sociological Science 13: 1046-1078.</li> 1308<li><strong>Received</strong>: March 5, 2026</li> 1309<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: July 16, 2026</li> 1310<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Elizabeth Bruch</li> 1311<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a40</li> 1312</ul> 1313<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1314<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1315</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1316<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1316<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1316</div> 1317<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1318<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-40-1046/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1319</div> 1320 </p> 1321 1322 1323 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1324 <div class="post-more"> 1325 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-40-1046/#comments"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 1</a></span> </div> 1326</article><!-- /.post --> 1327 </div><!--/.block--> 1328<div class="fix"></div> <div class="block"> 1329 <article class="post-8344 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-china-shock tag-commuting-zone tag-mens-labor-market-decline tag-spousal-earnings-correlation tag-united-states"> 1330 <header> 1331 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-39-1018/" rel="bookmark" title="Menâs Labor-Market Decline and the Rising Correlation between Spousesâ Earnings in the United States">Menâs Labor-Market Decline and the Rising Correlation between Spousesâ Earnings in the United States</a></h2> </header> 1332 1333<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-08-20T09:00:59-0700">August 20, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1334 <section class="entry"> 1335 1336 <p>Yifan Shen</p> 1337<h6>Sociological Science August 20, 2026<br /> 133810.15195/v13.a39</h6> 1339<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1340<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1341<div class="md-content"> 1342<h3>Abstract</h3> 1343<div> 1344This study examines the role of deterioration in menâs labor-market conditions in explaining the rising correlation between spousesâ earnings in the United States. Prior research treats the growth of married womenâs employment as the primary driver of this trend, leaving menâs declining economic position largely unexamined. Drawing on U.S. Census and American Community Survey data from 1960 to 2019 covering 722 commuting zones, I apply two-way fixed-effects models and a shiftâshare instrumental-variable design that exploits local variation in exposure to Chinese import competition across male- and female-intensive industries. Both approaches indicate that deterioration in menâs labor-market conditions raises the spousal earnings correlation within local labor markets, with the increase concentrated among couples with children. The pattern is class-stratified: where menâs conditions worsen, mothersâ work hours rise among those married to higher-earning men but little among those married to lower-earning men. This rising correlation thus reflects not only the growth of wivesâ employment but also the unequally distributed capacity of families to adapt to menâs labor-market declineâan adaptation that itself amplifies inequality between households.<br /> 1345<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1346<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1347</div> 1348</div> 1349</div> 1350<div class="topLinks"> 1351<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/SocSci_v13_1018to1045.pdf" title="Download Shen" target="_blank">PDF (517 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-39-1018/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-39-1018/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1352<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a39" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1353</div> 1354<p><div id="tabs-96" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1355<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1356<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1357<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1358<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1359</ul> 1360<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1361This study examines the role of deterioration in menâs labor-market conditions in explaining the rising correlation between spousesâ earnings in the United States. Prior research treats the growth of married womenâs employment as the primary driver of this trend, leaving menâs declining economic position largely unexamined. Drawing on U.S. Census and American Community Survey data from 1960 to 2019 covering 722
1361commuting zones, I apply two-way fixed-effects models and a shiftâshare instrumental-variable design that exploits local variation in exposure to Chinese import competition across male- and female-intensive industries. Both approaches indicate that deterioration in menâs labor-market conditions raises the spousal earnings correlation within local labor markets, with the increase concentrated among couples with children. The pattern is class-stratified: where menâs conditions worsen, mothersâ work hours rise among those married to higher-earning men but little among those married to lower-earning men. This rising correlation thus reflects not only the growth of wivesâ employment but also the unequally distributed capacity of families to adapt to menâs labor-market declineâan adaptation that itself amplifies inequality between households.</p> 1362 1363<table id="tablepress-7-no-5" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1364<tbody> 1365<tr class="row-1"> 1366 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1367</tr> 1368</tbody> 1369</table> 1370<!-- #tablepress-7-no-5 from cache --> 1371<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1372<div class="tab tab-author-information">Yifan Shen: Division of Social Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.<br /> 1373E-mail: [email protected]</p> 1374<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1375<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_1018to1045_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1376<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> The replication package contains the Stata code that reproduces every table and figure from the IPUMS census/ACS microdata, all third-party input data, and documentation describing how to download the IPUMS microdata (samples and variables) required as input data. It is available at <a target="_blank" href="https://doi.org/10.3886/E251260V1">https://doi.org/10.3886/E251260V1</a><br /> 1377</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1378<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1379<ul> 1380<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Shen, Yifan. 2026. âMenâs Labor-Market Decline and the Rising Correlation between Spousesâ Earnings in the United Statesâ Sociological Science 13:1018-1045.</li> 1381<li><strong>Received</strong>: May 13, 2026</li> 1382<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: July 21, 2026</li> 1383<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Arnout van de Rijt, Michael Rosenfeld</li> 1384<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a39</li> 1385</ul> 1386<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1387<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1388</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1389<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1389<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1389</div> 1390<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1391<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-39-1018/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1392</div> 1393 </p> 1394 1395 1396 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1397 <div class="post-more"> 1398 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-39-1018/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1399</article><!-- /.post --> 1400 </div><!--/.block--> 1401 <div class="block last"> 1402 <article class="post-8331 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-access-to-tertiary-education tag-education-based-meritocracy tag-effort-based-meritocracy tag-higher-education tag-skill-based-meritocracy tag-support-for-meritocracy"> 1403 <header> 1404 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-38-997/" rel="bookmark" title="Access to Higher Education and Support for Meritocracy: Effort, Skill, and Education as Components of Merit">Access to Higher Education and Support for Meritocracy: Effort, Skill, and Education as Components of Merit</a></h2> </header> 1405 1406<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-08-18T09:00:25-0700">August 18, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1407 <section class="entry"> 1408 1409 <p>Hye Won Kwon, Jani Erola</p> 1410<h6>Sociological Science August 18, 2026<br /> 141110.15195/v13.a38</h6> 1412<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1413<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1414<div class="md-content"> 1415<h3>Abstract</h3> 1416<div> 1417Prior research has emphasized perceptions of effort-based meritocracy (i.e., the descriptive belief that hard work leads to success), noting a rising trend in meritocratic beliefs across countries. The current study proposes focusing on three components of meritâeffort, skill, and education â and on a less-examined form of meritocratic beliefs: support for meritocracy (i.e., the prescriptive belief that society should distribute rewards based on merit). Analyzing the 2009 International Social Survey Programme data, this study demonstrates the role of higher education in shaping heterogeneity in support for meritocracy. College-educated individuals seem to reject effort-based meritocracy while strongly supporting skill- and education-based meritocracy. In addition, the gap between the college-educated and the non-college-educated in supporting education-based meritocracy is larger in countries with broader access to higher education. These findings suggest that people may refer to different dimensions of meritocracy when supporting or disapproving âmeritocracy,â calling for refined policy interventions to reduce social inequalities.<br /> 1418<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1419<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1420</div> 1421</div> 1422</div> 1423<div class="topLinks"> 1424<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/SocSci_v13_997to1017.pdf" title="Download Kwon" target="_blank">PDF (537 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-38-997/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-38-997/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1425<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a38" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1426</div> 1427<p><div id="tabs-66" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1428<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1429<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1430<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1431<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1432</ul> 1433<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1434Prior research has emphasized perceptions of effort-based meritocracy (i.e., the descriptive belief that hard work leads to success), noting a rising trend in meritocratic beliefs across countries. The current study proposes focusing on three components of meritâeffort, skill, and education â and on a less-examined form of meritocratic beliefs: support for meritocracy (i.e., the prescriptive belief that society should distribute rewards based on merit). Analyzing the 2009 International Social Survey Programme data, this study demonstrates the role of higher education in shaping heterogeneity in support for meritocracy.
1434College-educated individuals seem to reject effort-based meritocracy while strongly supporting skill- and education-based meritocracy. In addition, the gap between the college-educated and the non-college-educated in supporting education-based meritocracy is larger in countries with broader access to higher education. These findings suggest that people may refer to different dimensions of meritocracy when supporting or disapproving âmeritocracy,â calling for refined policy interventions to reduce social inequalities.</p> 1435 1436<table id="tablepress-7-no-6" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1437<tbody> 1438<tr class="row-1"> 1439 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1440</tr> 1441</tbody> 1442</table> 1443<!-- #tablepress-7-no-6 from cache --> 1444<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1445<div class="tab tab-author-information">Hye Won Kwon: Department of Sociology, Ewha Womans University.<br /> 1446E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1447<p>Jani Erola: INVEST Research Flagship Center, University of Turku.<br /> 1448E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1449<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2024S1A5A8020262). We gratefully acknowledge the Research Council of Finland flagship funding (INVEST, decision number 320162) and Academy Professorâs funding (STRATEQ, decision number 371741). Direct Correspondence to Hye Won Kwon (E-mail: [email protected]).</p> 1450<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1451<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_997to1017_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1452<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> A reproducibility package that includes codes and macro-level data is available at <a href="https://github.com/INVEST-flagship/Kwon-Erola-2026" target="_blank">https://github.com/INVEST-flagship/Kwon-Erola-2026</a>. The ISSP 2009 survey data cannot be uploaded to publicly available locations, because the data can be accessed only after the user registration through the GESIS portal. The ISSP 2009 data are available via the GESIS portal: <a href="https://www.gesis.org/en/issp/data-and-documentation/" target="_blank">https://www.gesis.org/en/issp/data-and-documentation/</a><br /> 1453social-inequality/2009.</p> 1454<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1455<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1456<ul> 1457<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Kwon, Hye Won, Jani Erola. 2026. âAccess to Higher Education and Support for Meritocracy: Effort, Skill, and Education as Components of Meritâ Sociological Science 13: 997-1017.</li> 1458<li><strong>Received</strong>: August 5, 2025</li> 1459<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: July 5, 2026</li> 1460<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Nan Dirk de Graaf</li> 1461<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a38</li> 1462</ul> 1463<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1464<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1465</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1466<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1466<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1466</div> 1467<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1468<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-38-997/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1469</div> 1470 </p> 1471 1472 1473 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1474 <div class="post-more"> 1475 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-38-997/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1476</article><!-- /.post --> 1477 </div><!--/.block--> 1478<div class="fix"></div> <div class="block"> 1479 <article class="post-8321 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-inequality tag-stratification tag-united-states tag-wealth"> 1480 <header> 1481 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-37-971/" rel="bookmark" title="Decoupling Inequality and Stratification in the American Wealth Distribution, 1989â2022">Decoupling Inequality and Stratification in the American Wealth Distribution, 1989â2022</a></h2> </header> 1482 1483<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-08-11T09:00:51-0700">August 11, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1484 <section class="entry"> 1485 1486 <p>Jake Burchard, Lisa A. Keister</p> 1487<h6>Sociological Science August 11, 2026<br /> 148810.15195/v13.a37</h6> 1489<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1490<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1491<div class="md-content"> 1492<h3>Abstract</h3> 1493<div> 1494Wealth inequality in the United States has grown substantially in recent decades, yet it remains unclear whether wealth has become more stratified along socially salient, group-based lines. Insofar as intragroup solidarities and intergroup antagonisms depend on the extent to which groups are arranged into minimally overlapping, hierarchically ordered strata within the wealth distribution, stratification is sociologically important independently of inequality. Using Survey of Consumer Finances data from 1989 to 2022 and a nonparametric, rank-based stratification metric, we examine trends in wealth stratification across multiple axes of social difference, including racialized group membership, age, education, employment-based class, and marital status. We find that stratification declined along several dimensions, with education being the main exception. Decomposition analyses show that these dimensions differ not only by the level of stratification they exhibit over time but also by where in the distribution stratification is primarily generated and by the relative contributions of housing and nonhousing wealth. These findings underscore the importance of wealth composition and distributional location in shaping stratification and encourage scholars to explore how wealth accumulation may harden or weaken group boundaries.<br /> 1495<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1496<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1497</div> 1498</div> 1499</div> 1500<div class="topLinks"> 1501<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/SocSci_v13_971to996.pdf" title="Download Burchard" target="_blank">PDF (574 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-37-971/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-37-971/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1502<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a37" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1503</div> 1504<p><div id="tabs-52" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1505<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1506<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1507<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1508<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1509</ul> 1510<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1511Wealth inequality in the United States has grown substantially in recent decades, yet it remains unclear whether wealth has become more stratified along socially salient, group-based lines. Insofar as intragroup solidarities and intergroup antagonisms depen
1511d on the extent to which groups are arranged into minimally overlapping, hierarchically ordered strata within the wealth distribution, stratification is sociologically important independently of inequality. Using Survey of Consumer Finances data from 1989 to 2022 and a nonparametric, rank-based stratification metric, we examine trends in wealth stratification across multiple axes of social difference, including racialized group membership, age, education, employment-based class, and marital status. We find that stratification declined along several dimensions, with education being the main exception. Decomposition analyses show that these dimensions differ not only by the level of stratification they exhibit over time but also by where in the distribution stratification is primarily generated and by the relative contributions of housing and nonhousing wealth. These findings underscore the importance of wealth composition and distributional location in shaping stratification and encourage scholars to explore how wealth accumulation may harden or weaken group boundaries.</p> 1512 1513<table id="tablepress-7-no-7" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1514<tbody> 1515<tr class="row-1"> 1516 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1517</tr> 1518</tbody> 1519</table> 1520<!-- #tablepress-7-no-7 from cache --> 1521<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1522<div class="tab tab-author-information">Jake Burchard: Department of Sociology, Duke University.<br /> 1523E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1524<p>Lisa A. Keister: Department of Sociology, Duke University; Sanford School of Public Policy, Duke University.<br /> 1525E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1526<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> We thank the editors and two anonymous external reviewers for their comments and suggestions. We also thank Jianyu Hong for research assistance.</p> 1527<p><strong>Funding:</strong> This research received support from the Population Dynamics Research Infrastructure Program award to the Duke Population Research Center (P2C HD065563) at Duke University by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.</p> 1528<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1529<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_971to996_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1530<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> Data and code to reproduce all results reported in the paper are available at: <a href="https://gitlab.oit.duke.edu/jkb83/decoupling-inequality-and-stratification-replication-package">https://gitlab.oit.duke.edu/jkb83/decoupling-inequality-and-stratification-replication-package</a>.<br /> 1531</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1532<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1533<ul> 1534<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Burchard, Jake, and Lisa A. Keister. 2026. âDecoupling Inequality and Stratification in the American Wealth Distribution, 1989â2022â Sociological Science 13: 971-996.</li> 1535<li><strong>Received</strong>: April 27, 2026</li> 1536<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: June 23, 2026</li> 1537<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Ray Reagans</li> 1538<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a37</li> 1539</ul> 1540<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1541<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1542</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1543<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1543<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1543</div> 1544<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1545<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-37-971/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1546</div> 1547 </p> 1548 1549 1550 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1551 <div class="post-more"> 1552 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-37-971/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1553</article><!-- /.post --> 1554 </div><!--/.block--> 1555 <div class="block last"> 1556 <article class="post-8311 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-interactions tag-nonlinear-treatment tag-theoretical-estimand"> 1557 <header> 1558 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-36-945/" rel="bookmark" title="Quantities of Interest for Interactions and the Pitfalls of Assuming Linear Treatment Effects">Quantities of Interest for Interactions and the Pitfalls of Assuming Linear Treatment Effects</a></h2> </header> 1559 1560<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-08-06T09:00:54-0700">August 6, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1561 <section class="entry"> 1562 1563 <p>Josep Serrano-Serrat</p> 1564<h6>Sociological Science August 6, 2026<br /> 156510.15195/v13.a36</h6> 1566<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1567<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1568<div class="md-content"> 1569<h3>Abstract</h3> 1570<div> 1571Although quantitative social sciences often rely on estimating models in which treatment effects vary across groups, researchers rarely specify which causal quantity they aim to estimate or justify their empirical modeling choices. This article makes two contributions. First, it clarifies the distinct quantities of interest when studying interactions: comparisons at different treatment intensities (the difference in conditional average marginal effects) and comparisons at similar intensities (what I term the average interactive partial effect). When treatment effects are nonlinear and treatment distributions differ across groups, these quantities diverge. Second, the article assesses estimation strategies to estimate these quantities. It demonstrates that linear interaction models produce biased estimates of either quantity when treatment effects are nonlinear and explores two alternatives that explicitly accommodate such nonlinearities. This article is accompanied by an R package that implements these approaches. Through simulations, stylized examples, and an empirical application, the article shows that explicitly defining the quantity of interest and selecting appropriate models is essential for valid interaction analysis.<br /> 1572<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1573<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1574</div> 1575</div> 1576</div> 1577<div class="topLinks"> 1578<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/SocSci_v13_945to970.pdf" title="Download Serrat" target="_blank">PDF (537 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-36-945/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-36-945/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1579<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a36" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1580</div> 1581<p><div id="tabs-90" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1582<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1583<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1584<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1585<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1586</ul> 1587<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1588Although quantitative social sciences often rely on estimating models in which treatment effects vary across groups, researchers rarely specify which causal quantity they aim to estimate or justify their empirical modeling choices. This article makes two contributions. First, it clarifies the distinct quantities of interest when studying interactions: comparisons at different treatment intensities (the difference in conditional average marginal effects) and comparisons at similar intensities (what I term the average interactive partial effect). When treatment effects are nonlinear and treatment distributions differ across groups, these quantities diverge. Second, the article assesses estimation strategies to estimate these quantities. It demonstrates that linear interaction models produce biased estimates of either quantity when treatment effects are nonlinear and explores two alternatives that explicitly accommodate such nonlinearities. This article is accompanied by an R package that implements these approaches. Through simulations, stylized examples, and an empirical application, the article shows that explicitly defining the quantity of interest and selecting appropriate models is essential for valid interaction analysis.</p> 1589 1590<table id="tablepress-7-no-8" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1591<tbody> 1592<tr class="row-1"> 1593 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative
1593Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1594</tr> 1595</tbody> 1596</table> 1597<!-- #tablepress-7-no-8 from cache --> 1598<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1599<div class="tab tab-author-information">Josep Serrano-Serrat: Institute for Public Goods and Policies (IPP), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC).<br /> 1600E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1601<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> An earlier version of this article was presented at the 2024 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association in Philadelphia and the 2025 Annual Conference of the Swiss Political Science Association in Genève. I am grateful to Cesc Amat, Ignacio Jurado, Patrick W. Kraft, Sergi MartÃnez, and Marco Steenbergen for their valuable comments and suggestions, which substantially improved the article. I also thank Felix Elwert, as Editor of <em>Sociological Methods & Research</em>, Arnout van de Rijt, as Editor of <em>Sociological Science</em>, and an anonymous reviewer for their insightful feedback and constructive guidance throughout the revision process.<br /> 1602</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1603<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_945to970_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1604<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> All code necessary to replicate this study is available in an OSF repository at <a href="https://osf.io/8tx6g/">https://osf.io/8tx6g/</a>.<br /> 1605</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1606<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1607<ul> 1608<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Serrano-Serrat, Josep. 2026. âQuantities of Interest for Interactions and the Pitfalls of Assuming Linear Treatment Effectsâ Sociological Science 13:945-970.</li> 1609<li><strong>Received</strong>: March 11, 2026</li> 1610<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: June 23, 2026</li> 1611<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Arnout van de Rijt, Kristian B. Karlson</li> 1612<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a36</li> 1613</ul> 1614<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1615<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1616</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1617<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1617<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1617</div> 1618<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1619<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-36-945/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1620</div> 1621 </p> 1622 1623 1624 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1625 <div class="post-more"> 1626 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-36-945/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1627</article><!-- /.post --> 1628 </div><!--/.block--> 1629<div class="fix"></div> <div class="block"> 1630 <article class="post-8301 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-analytical-sociology tag-education-and-social-policy tag-human-capital-investments tag-life-course tag-microlevel-modeling"> 1631 <header> 1632 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-35-915/" rel="bookmark" title="Bending the Heckman Curve: Competing Declines in Learning Capacity and Skill Relevance Over the Life Course">Bending the Heckman Curve: Competing Declines in Learning Capacity and Skill Relevance Over the Life Course</a></h2> </header> 1633 1634<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-08-04T09:00:15-0700">August 4, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1635 <section class="entry"> 1636 1637 <p>João M. Souto-Maior, Mitchell L. Stevens</p> 1638<h6>Sociological Science August 4, 2026<br /> 163910.15195/v13.a35</h6> 1640<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1641<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1642<div class="md-content"> 1643<h3>Abstract</h3> 1644<div> 1645The Heckman curve has powerfully influenced social policy by providing mathematical support for the concentration of human-capital investments early in the life course. The canonical model behind this curve derives a single relationship for aggregate human capital and does not address how return trajectories vary across skill types. We extend the canonical mathematical framework to derive skill-specific return trajectories, incorporating two key parameters governing declines in (a) human capacity to learn and (b) skill relevance over the life course. Our microfoundation model implies that the shape of return trajectories depen
1645ds on the relative magnitudes of these two declines, indicating a trade-off: although early investments may be more efficient due to declining human learning capacity, they risk misalignment with future labor market needs. Depending on the targeted skill, investments in adult workers might more effectively align with evolving skill content. We illustrate this result with numerical simulations using empirically plausible parameter ranges and selected skill profiles. Our work suggests that optimal investment timing may be skill-dependent, and identifies empirical questions that can better inform human-capital policy in a time of rapid technological change and lengthening lifespans.<br /> 1646<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1647<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1648</div> 1649</div> 1650</div> 1651<div class="topLinks"> 1652<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/SocSci_v13_915to944.pdf" title="Download Stevens" target="_blank">PDF (1292 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-35-915/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-35-915/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1653<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a35" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1654</div> 1655<p><div id="tabs-42" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1656<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1657<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1658<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1659<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1660</ul> 1661<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1662The Heckman curve has powerfully influenced social policy by providing mathematical support for the concentration of human-capital investments early in the life course. The canonical model behind this curve derives a single relationship for aggregate human capital and does not address how return trajectories vary across skill types. We extend the canonical mathematical framework to derive skill-specific return trajectories, incorporating two key parameters governing declines in (a) human capacity to learn and (b) skill relevance over the life course. Our microfoundation model implies that the shape of return trajectories depen
1662ds on the relative magnitudes of these two declines, indicating a trade-off: although early investments may be more efficient due to declining human learning capacity, they risk misalignment with future labor market needs. Depending on the targeted skill, investments in adult workers might more effectively align with evolving skill content. We illustrate this result with numerical simulations using empirically plausible parameter ranges and selected skill profiles. Our work suggests that optimal investment timing may be skill-dependent, and identifies empirical questions that can better inform human-capital policy in a time of rapid technological change and lengthening lifespans.</p> 1663 1664<table id="tablepress-7-no-9" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1665<tbody> 1666<tr class="row-1"> 1667 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1668</tr> 1669</tbody> 1670</table> 1671<!-- #tablepress-7-no-9 from cache --> 1672<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1673<div class="tab tab-author-information">João M. Souto-Maior: Stanford Center on Longevity and Graduate School of Education, Stanford University.<br /> 1674E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1675<p>Mitchell L. Stevens: Graduate School of Education and Stanford Center on Longevity, Stanford University.<br /> 1676E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1677<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> This paper is part of the project âEducation and Learning for Longer Lives,â sponsored by the Stanford Center on Longevity (SCL) in 2025â2026. We thank the SCLâs Futures Fellows and New Map of Life Postdoctoral Fellows for the contexts in which this work germinated. We are especially grateful to Bernardo Mackenna, Chris Heitzig, Leon Marbach, and Arik Lifschitz for written feedback, and to Matt Sigelman for valuable advice. Earlier versions of this work benefited from critical feedback (all in 2025) in Stanfordâs Pathways Network Seminar and Inequality Workshop, the SCL Fellows Seminar, the Sociological Science Annual Conference, and the International Network of Analytical Sociology Conference. Any errors are our own.<br /> 1678</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1679<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/august/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_915to944_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1680<p><strong>Data and code availability statement:</strong> This paper does not use external data. Full replication code for numerical simulations and figures available at: <a href="https://github.com/joaosoutomaior/competing-declines-code">https://github.com/joaosoutomaior/competing-declines-code</a>.<br /> 1681</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1682<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1683<ul> 1684<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Souto-Maior, João M., and Mitchell L. Stevens. 2026. âBending the Heckman Curve: Competing Declines in Learning Capacity and Skill Relevance Over the Life Courseâ Sociological Science 13: 915-944.</li> 1685<li><strong>Received</strong>: April 9, 2026</li> 1686<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: June 16, 2026</li> 1687<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Stephen Vaisey, Herman van de Werfhorst</li> 1688<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a35</li> 1689</ul> 1690<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1691<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1692</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1693<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1693<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1693</div> 1694<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1695<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-35-915/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1696</div> 1697 </p> 1698 1699 1700 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1701 <div class="post-more"> 1702 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-35-915/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1703</article><!-- /.post --> 1704 </div><!--/.block--> 1705 <div class="block last"> 1706 <article class="post-8290 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-categories tag-entrepreneurship tag-search"> 1707 <header> 1708 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-34-884/" rel="bookmark" title="Categorical Engagement and the Contingent Nature of Typicality Effects">Categorical Engagement and the Contingent Nature of Typicality Effects</a></h2> </header> 1709 1710<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-07-28T09:00:34-0700">July 28, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1711 <section class="entry"> 1712 1713 <p>Alex Tyulyupo, Balázs Kovács</p> 1714<h6>Sociological Science July 28, 2026<br /> 171510.15195/v13.a34</h6> 1716<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1717<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1718<div class="md-content"> 1719<h3>Abstract</h3> 1720<div> 1721Market categories can favor typical members over atypical ones, yet this âcategorical imperativeâ operates inconsistently across contexts. We argue that typicality effects depend on how evaluators engage with categories during search. Using behavioral simulation in which participants search a large database of companies for competitors, we distinguish between searches that explicitly invoke industry classifications and those using alternative methods, and measure goal-category congruence through semantic alignment between evaluatorsâ objectives and the categories they employ. We find that typical companies become more likely to be selected in category-based searches; other searches produce no typicality effects. Among category-based searches, goal-category congruence moderates the effect: typicality strongly predicts selection when goals and categories misalign but becomes irrelevant when they align well. These findings identify a specific microprocess through which categorical effects become contingent, offering a process-level explanation for variation documented across audiences, producer characteristics, and evaluation contexts.<br /> 1722<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1723<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1724</div> 1725</div> 1726</div> 1727<div class="topLinks"> 1728<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/SocSci_v13_884to914.pdf" title="Download Tyulyupo" target="_blank">PDF (570 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-34-884/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-34-884/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1729<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a34" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1730</div> 1731<p><div id="tabs-34" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1732<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1733<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1734<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1735<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1736</ul> 1737<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1738Market categories can favor typical members over atypical ones, yet this âcategorical imperativeâ operates inconsistently across contexts. We argue that typicality effects depend on how evaluators engage with categories during search. Using behavioral simulation in which participants search a large database of companies for competitors, we distinguish between searches that explicitly invoke industry classifications and those using alternative methods, and measure goal-category congruence through semantic alignment between evaluatorsâ objectives and the categories they employ. We find that typical companies become more likely to be selected in category-based searches; other searches produce no typicality effects. Among category-based searches, goal-category congruence moderates the effect: typicality strongly predicts selection when goals and categories misalign but be
1738comes irrelevant when they align well. These findings identify a specific microprocess through which categorical effects become contingent, offering a process-level explanation for variation documented across audiences, producer characteristics, and evaluation contexts.</p> 1739 1740<table id="tablepress-7-no-10" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1741<tbody> 1742<tr class="row-1"> 1743 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1744</tr> 1745</tbody> 1746</table> 1747<!-- #tablepress-7-no-10 from cache --> 1748<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1749<div class="tab tab-author-information">Alex Tyulyupo: Yale School of Management, Yale University.<br /> 1750E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1751<p>Balázs Kovács: Yale School of Management, Yale University.<br /> 1752E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1753<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> We thank Ceclin Begbie and Robert Bartholomew for their management of the behavioral lab. We thank Maciej Workiewicz, Elisa Operti, and Stoyan Sgourev for their input. We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Yale School of Management. We benefited from feedback received at the 2025 Nagymaros Conference and the Yale School of Management OBID seminar.<br /> 1754</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1755<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_884to914_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1756<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> De-identified, model-ready data and code for reproducing all statistical tables and figures are available at (<a href="https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/6Z8RS">https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/6Z8RS</a>). Raw Crunchbase records, company and venture descriptions, and participant-identifying information are not shared because of data-use and confidentiality restrictions.</p> 1757<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1758<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1759<ul> 1760<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Tyulyupo, Alex, and Kovács, Balázs. 2026. âCategorical Engagement and the Contingent Nature of Typicality Effectsâ Sociological Science 13:884-914.</li> 1761<li><strong>Received</strong>: May 6, 2026</li> 1762<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: June 23, 2026</li> 1763<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Clayton Childress</li> 1764<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a34</li> 1765</ul> 1766<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1767<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1768</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1769<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1769<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1769</div> 1770<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1771<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-34-884/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1772</div> 1773 </p> 1774 1775 1776 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1777 <div class="post-more"> 1778 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-34-884/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1779</article><!-- /.post --> 1780 </div><!--/.block--> 1781<div class="fix"></div> <div class="block"> 1782 <article class="post-8285 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-attention tag-echo-chambers tag-engagement tag-political-communication tag-selective-exposure tag-social-media"> 1783 <header> 1784 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-33-864/" rel="bookmark" title="Information Diets Are More Diverse in Attention Than in Engagement">Information Diets Are More Diverse in Attention Than in Engagement</a></h2> </header> 1785 1786<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-07-21T09:00:48-0700">July 21, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1787 <section class="entry"> 1788 1789 <p>Christopher Barrie, Aybuke Atalay, Alia ElKattan</p> 1790<h6>Sociological Science July 21, 2026<br /> 179110.15195/v13.a33</h6> 1792<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1793<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1794<div class="md-content"> 1795<h3>Abstract</h3> 1796<div> 1797What political content do we pay attention to online? Diverse political information is essential for democratic competence, yet online media raises concerns about fragmented information diets. Research on selective exposure highlights how social media can foster ideological echo chambers, while other studies emphasize incidental exposure to diverse viewpoints. A critical measurement challenge is that public platform traces often observe engagement (e.g., likes or shares) more readily than lower-visibility forms of attentionâi.e., what users notice or choose to read without necessarily interacting publicly. In this study, we address this gap with a social media clone platform that separately records attention and engagement. We ran the study in both the United Kingdom (once) and the United States (thrice). Across both contexts, we found that the ideology-engagement association is significantly larger than the ideology-attention association. This underscores the importance of measuring attention, rather than solely engagement, to accurately assess the diversity of online information diets.<br /> 1798<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1799<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1800</div> 1801</div> 1802</div> 1803<div class="topLinks"> 1804<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/SocSci_v13_864to883.pdf" title="Download Barrie" target="_blank">PDF (845 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-33-864/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-33-864/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1805<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a33" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1806</div> 1807<p><div id="tabs-41" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1808<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1809<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1810<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1811<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1812</ul> 1813<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1814What political content do we pay attention to online? Diverse political information is essential for democratic competence, yet online media raises concerns about fragmented information diets. Research on selective exposure highlights how social media can foster ideological echo chambers, while other studies emphasize incidental exposure to diverse viewpoints. A critical measurement challenge is that public platform traces often observe engagement (e.g., likes or shares) more readily than lower-visibility forms of attentionâi.e., what users notice or choose to read without necessarily interacting publicly. In this study, we address this gap with a social media clone platform that separately records attention and engagement. We ran the study in both the United Kingdom (once) and the United States (thrice). Across both contexts, we found that the ideology-engagement association is significantly larger than the ideology-attention association. This underscores the importance of measuring attention, rather than solely engagement, to accurately assess the diversity of online information diets.</p> 1815 1816<table id="tablepress-7-no-11" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1817<tbody> 1818<tr class="row-1"> 1819 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative
1819Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1820</tr> 1821</tbody> 1822</table> 1823<!-- #tablepress-7-no-11 from cache --> 1824<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1825<div class="tab tab-author-information">Christopher Barrie: Department of Sociology, New York University.<br /> 1826E-mail: [email protected]</p> 1827<p>Aybuke Atalay: Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Edinburgh.<br /> 1828E-mail: [email protected]</p> 1829<p>Alia ElKattan: Department of Politics, New York University.<br /> 1830E-mail: [email protected]</p> 1831<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> We thank audiences at the NYU Center for Social Media and Politics for their feedback on earlier versions of this paper. This research was supported by a British Academy/Leverhulme Small Research Grant (SRG2223 230865). OpenAI GPT-4o and GPT-5 and Anthropic Claude (Sonnet 4.5) were used for code, code review, and manuscript redrafting. The authors declare no competing interests. Corresponding author: Christopher Barrie ([email protected]).<br /> 1832</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1833<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_864to883_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1834<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> Data, code, documentation, and replication materials necessary to re-produce the empirical and simulation results reported in this article are available at <a href="https: //github.com/cjbarrie/smclone">https://github.com/cjbarrie/smclone</a>.</p> 1835<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1836<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1837<ul> 1838<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Barrie, Christopher, Aybuke Atalay, and Alia ElKattan. 2026. âInformation Diets Are More Diverse in Attention Than in Engagementâ Sociological Science 13: 864-883.</li> 1839<li><strong>Received</strong>: April 9, 2026</li> 1840<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: June 8, 2026</li> 1841<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Kieran Healy</li> 1842<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a33</li> 1843</ul> 1844<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1845<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1846</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1847<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1847<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1847</div> 1848<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1849<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-33-864/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1850</div> 1851 </p> 1852 1853 1854 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1855 <div class="post-more"> 1856 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-33-864/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1857</article><!-- /.post --> 1858 </div><!--/.block--> 1859 <div class="block last"> 1860 <article class="post-8274 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-data-disaggregation tag-intersectionality tag-racial-classification tag-reproducibility tag-survey-measurement tag-transparency"> 1861 <header> 1862 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-32-825/" rel="bookmark" title="A Roadmap for Inequality Research: Transparency, Intersectionality, and Multiple Measures of Race">A Roadmap for Inequality Research: Transparency, Intersectionality, and Multiple Measures of Race</a></h2> </header> 1863 1864<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-07-09T09:00:20-0700">July 9, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1865 <section class="entry"> 1866 1867 <p>Emma Williams-Baron, Aliya Saperstein</p> 1868<h6>Sociological Science July 9, 2026<br /> 186910.15195/v13.a32</h6> 1870<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1871<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1872<div class="md-content"> 1873<h3>Abstract</h3> 1874<div> 1875Most quantitative studies of U.S. inequality rely on single measures of race and do not transparently describe them. However, inconsistencies between measures can yield conclusions that differ both substantively and statistically. We ask: when faced with multiple ways to categorize respondents, how should researchers choose? We conduct intersectional analyses of five inequality outcomes, using the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, which offers several measures of self-identification and external classification. Strikingly, we find the surveyâs screener race variable, ubiquitous in prior research, is never empirically preferred based on model fit across outcomes spanning the labor market (wages, salary, and unemployment), health (depression), and education (school discipline). Instead, the top-performing measure varies by gender, outcome, and fit statistic. The range of potential researcher decisions and the absence of a clear gold-standard highlights the need for greater transparency and more thoughtful decision-making when researchers operationalize raceâwhether racial categorization is central to the analysis or included primarily as a control variable. To that end, we offer a roadmap of key considerations inequality researchers can consult when designing their approach.<br /> 1876<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1877<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1878</div> 1879</div> 1880</div> 1881<div class="topLinks"> 1882<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/SocSci_v13_825to863.pdf" title="Download Emma" target="_blank">PDF (1076 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-32-825/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-32-825/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1883<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a32" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1884</div> 1885<p><div id="tabs-28" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1886<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1887<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1888<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1889<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1890</ul> 1891<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1892Most quantitative studies of U.S. inequality rely on single measures of race and do not transparently describe them. However, inconsistencies between measures can yield conclusions that differ both
1892substantively and statistically. We ask: when faced with multiple ways to categorize respondents, how should researchers choose? We conduct intersectional analyses of five inequality outcomes, using the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, which offers several measures of self-identification and external classification. Strikingly, we find the surveyâs screener race variable, ubiquitous in prior research, is never empirically preferred based on model fit across outcomes spanning the labor market (wages, salary, and unemployment), health (depression), and education (school discipline). Instead, the top-performing measure varies by gender, outcome, and fit statistic. The range of potential researcher decisions and the absence of a clear gold-standard highlights the need for greater transparency and more thoughtful decision-making when researchers operationalize raceâwhether racial categorization is central to the analysis or included primarily as a control variable. To that end, we offer a roadmap of key considerations inequality researchers can consult when designing their approach.</p> 1893 1894<table id="tablepress-7-no-12" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1895<tbody> 1896<tr class="row-1"> 1897 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1898</tr> 1899</tbody> 1900</table> 1901<!-- #tablepress-7-no-12 from cache --> 1902<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1903<div class="tab tab-author-information">Emma Williams-Baron: Department of Sociology, Stanford University. E-mail: [email protected].<br /> 1904Aliya Saperstein: Department of Sociology, Stanford University. E-mail: [email protected].</p> 1905<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> We are grateful to our colleagues in the gender and inequality workshops at Stanford University for their helpful comments and suggestions, and to Steve McClaskie for responding to inquiries about the NLSY. Previous versions of this paper were presented at the 2024 American Sociological Association annual meeting and at a 2023 conference on racial inequality in education research hosted by NWEA in Portland, OR. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant No. DGE-1656518. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.<br /> 1906</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1907<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_825to863_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1908<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> Data and code for reproducing the results presented in this article are publicly<br /> 1909available in an Open Science Framework repository here: <a href="https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/K3RZT" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/K3RZT</a>. Data may also be accessed through the NLSY Investigator site at: <a href="https://www.nlsinfo.org/investigator" target="_blank">https://www.nlsinfo.org/investigator</a>.</p> 1910<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1911<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1912<ul> 1913<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Williams-Baron, Emma, Aliya Saperstein. 2026. âA Roadmap for Inequality Research: Transparency, Intersectionality, and Multiple Measures of Raceâ Sociological Science 13: 825-863.</li> 1914<li><strong>Received</strong>: September 20, 2025</li> 1915<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: May 18, 2026</li> 1916<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Arnout van de Rijt, Kristian B. Karlson</li> 1917<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a32</li> 1918</ul> 1919<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1920<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1921</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1922<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1922<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1922</div> 1923<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 1924<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-32-825/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 1925</div> 1926 </p> 1927 1928 1929 </section><!-- /.entry --> 1930 <div class="post-more"> 1931 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-32-825/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 1932</article><!-- /.post --> 1933 </div><!--/.block--> 1934<div class="fix"></div> <div class="block"> 1935 <article class="post-8272 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-biodemography tag-genetic-ancestry tag-human-genomics tag-physical-attractiveness tag-racial-inequality tag-social-stratification"> 1936 <header> 1937 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-31-802/" rel="bookmark" title="Leveraging Genomic Data to Document Within-Race Attractiveness Penalties Among Black Americans">Leveraging Genomic Data to Document Within-Race Attractiveness Penalties Among Black Americans</a></h2> </header> 1938 1939<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-07-07T09:00:01-0700">July 7, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 1940 <section class="entry"> 1941 1942 <p>Beza Taddess, Luyin Zhang, Sam Trejo</p> 1943<h6>Sociological Science July 7, 2026<br /> 194410.15195/v13.a31</h6> 1945<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 1946<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 1947<div class="md-content"> 1948<h3>Abstract</h3> 1949<div> 1950In recent years, scholars of racial inequality have increasingly sought to move beyond simply quantifying discrete racial disparities and instead measure social stratification as a function of continuous racialized characteristics that vary both within and between racial groups. In this article, we draw on a sample of genotyped respondents from the Add Health study and construct genetic similarity proportions, individual-level measures that correlate with racialized physical features that vary across the exp
1950ansive family tree of humanity (skin tone, facial structure, hair texture, etc.). We then investigate the relationship between these proportions and interviewer-rated physical attractiveness among self-identified Black Americans (N=2,087). Our findings highlight the existence of substantial attractiveness penalties related to having higher levels of Sub-Saharan African (as opposed to European) genetic similarity.<br /> 1951<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 1952<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 1953</div> 1954</div> 1955</div> 1956<div class="topLinks"> 1957<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/SocSci_v13_802to824.pdf" title="Download Trejo" target="_blank">PDF (2301 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-31-802/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-31-802/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 1958<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a31" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 1959</div> 1960<p><div id="tabs-18" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 1961<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 1962<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 1963<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 1964<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 1965</ul> 1966<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 1967In recent years, scholars of racial inequality have increasingly sought to move beyond simply quantifying discrete racial disparities and instead measure social stratification as a function of continuous racialized characteristics that vary both within and between racial groups. In this article, we draw on a sample of genotyped respondents from the Add Health study and construct genetic similarity proportions, individual-level measures that correlate with racialized physical features that vary across the exp
1967ansive family tree of humanity (skin tone, facial structure, hair texture, etc.). We then investigate the relationship between these proportions and interviewer-rated physical attractiveness among self-identified Black Americans (N=2,087). Our findings highlight the existence of substantial attractiveness penalties related to having higher levels of Sub-Saharan African (as opposed to European) genetic similarity.<br /> 1968 1969<table id="tablepress-7-no-13" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 1970<tbody> 1971<tr class="row-1"> 1972 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 1973</tr> 1974</tbody> 1975</table> 1976<!-- #tablepress-7-no-13 from cache --></p> 1977<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1978<div class="tab tab-author-information">Beza Taddess: Department of Sociology, Princeton University. E-mail: [email protected]<br /> 1979Luyin Zhang: Office of Population Research, Princeton University. E-mail: [email protected]<br /> 1980Sam Trejo: Department of Sociology and Office of Population Research, Princeton University. E-mail: [email protected]</p> 1981<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> We are grateful to Dalton Conley, Filiz Garip, Iain Mathieson, Ellis Monk, and Marissa Thompson for helpful comments. This research uses data from Add Health, funded by grant P01 HD31921 (Harris) from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Add Health is currently directed by Robert A. Hummer and funded by the National Institute on Aging cooperative agreements U01 AG071448 (Hummer) and U01AG071450 (Hummer and Aiello) at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Add Health was designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. No direct support was received from grant P01 HD31921 for this analysis. Information on obtaining Add Health data is available on the project website. Send correspondence to Sam Trejo, [email protected].</p> 1982<p><strong>Significance Statement</strong>: This study provides new evidence on how racialized physical features shape social experiences within a single self-identified racial group. By using genetic similarity proportionsâgenetic ancestry measures that correlate with physical traits such as skin tone and facial structureâthe authors show that Black Americans with higher levels of Sub-Saharan African genetic similarity are systematically rated as less physically attractive. These results reveal a form of racialized disadvantage that operates within racial categories and is not captured by typical survey measures and help explain why traditional surveys report relatively small BlackâWhite attractiveness gaps (whereas real-world behavior shows much larger differences). More broadly, the study offers genetic similarity proportions as a new tool for exploring processes of racialization in contemporary society.<br /> 1983</div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1984<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_802to824_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 1985<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> All results needed to evaluate the conclusions in the article are present in the article and/or the Supplementary Materials. All syntax files needed to replicate our main text analyses are available at the following link: <a href="https://github.com/luyin-z/attractiveness_penalties" target="_blank">https://github.com/luyin-z/attractiveness_penalties</a>. We utilized the restricted Add Health survey and genotype data, which can be accessed by researchers via application at <a href="https://data.cpc.unc.edu/projects/2/view" target="_blank">https://data.cpc.unc.edu/projects/2/view</a>.</p> 1986<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 1987<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 1988<ul> 1989<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Taddess, Beza, Luyin Zhang, and Sam Trejo. 2026. âLeveraging Genomic Data to Document Within-Race Attractiveness Penalties Among Black Americansâ Sociological Science 13: 802-824.</li> 1990<li><strong>Received</strong>: March 24, 2026</li> 1991<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: May 13, 2026</li> 1992<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Ellis Monk</li> 1993<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a31</li> 1994</ul> 1995<p></div><!--/.tab--> 1996<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 1997</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 1998<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
1998<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
1998</div> 1999<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 2000<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-31-802/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 2001</div> 2002 </p> 2003 2004 2005 </section><!-- /.entry --> 2006 <div class="post-more"> 2007 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-31-802/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 2008</article><!-- /.post --> 2009 </div><!--/.block--> 2010 <div class="block last"> 2011 <article class="post-8260 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-low-wage-work tag-precarious-work tag-schedule-instability tag-social-support tag-work-schedules tag-worker-well-being"> 2012 <header> 2013 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-30-772/" rel="bookmark" title="The Double Bind of Precarious Work: Creating Need and Undermining Support">The Double Bind of Precarious Work: Creating Need and Undermining Support</a></h2> </header> 2014 2015<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-07-01T00:13:40-0700">July 1, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 2016 <section class="entry"> 2017 2018 <p>Tyler Woods, Kristen Harknett, Daniel Schneider</p> 2019<h6>Sociological Science July 2, 2026<br /> 202010.15195/v13.a30</h6> 2021<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 2022<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 2023<div class="md-content"> 2024<h3>Abstract</h3> 2025<div> 2026For most adults in the United States, participation in the labor force is a normative expectation and a pre-requisite for social acceptance and inclusion. Yet, the conditions of low-wage work can breed social isolation by interfering with supportive social ties at and outside of work. Drawing on survey data from The Shift Project, we examine the complex interplay between precarious working conditions and supportive social ties and illuminate a vicious cycle faced by low-wage workers. Precarious work schedule conditions are associated with reduced perceptions of support from social ties and act as a mechanism through which precarious working conditions take a toll on worker well-being. Further, those with precarious work schedules are less likely to benefit from the buffering effect of social support that attenuates the negative consequences of unstable and unpredictable schedules on well-being. Our findings demonstrate negative externalities of precarious working conditions for social support and reveal the double bind of precarious work: schedule instability undermines workersâ social support while simultaneously heightening the need for it.<br /> 2027<!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 2028<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 2029</div> 2030</div> 2031</div> 2032<div class="topLinks"> 2033<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/SocSci_v13_772to801.pdf" title="Download Harknett" target="_blank">PDF (946 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-30-772/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-30-772/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 2034<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a30" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 2035</div> 2036<p><div id="tabs-59" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 2037<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 2038<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 2039<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 2040<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 2041</ul> 2042<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br />
2043For most adults in the United States, participation in the labor force is a normative expectation and a pre-requisite for social acceptance and inclusion. Yet, the conditions of low-wage work can breed social isolation by interfering with supportive social ties at and outside of work. Drawing on survey data from The Shift Project, we examine the complex interplay between precarious working conditions and supportive social ties and illuminate a vicious cycle faced by low-wage workers. Precarious work schedule conditions are associated with reduced perceptions of support from social ties and act as a mechanism through which precarious working conditions take a toll on worker well-being. Further, those with precarious work schedules are less likely to benefit from the buffering effect of social support that attenuates the negative consequences of unstable and unpredictable schedules on well-being. Our findings demonstrate negative externalities of precarious working conditions for social support and reveal the double bind of precarious work: schedule instability undermines workersâ social support while simultaneously heightening the need for it.<br /> 2044 2045<table id="tablepress-7-no-14" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 2046<tbody> 2047<tr class="row-1"> 2048 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 2049</tr> 2050</tbody> 2051</table> 2052<!-- #tablepress-7-no-14 from cache --></p> 2053<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2054<div class="tab tab-author-information">Tyler Woods: Harvard Kennedy School. E-mail: [email protected].<br /> 2055Kristen Harknett: University of California, Berkeley, Department of Sociology. E-mail: [email protected].<br /> 2056Daniel Schneider: Harvard Kennedy School. E-mail: [email protected].</p> 2057<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> We gratefully acknowledge support from the National Institute on Aging (Grant Nos. R01AG066898 and R56AG081273), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (Grant No. U19OH012293), the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (Grant Nos. INV-002665 and INV-016942), the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (Award No. 74528), and the W.T. Grant Foundation (Grant No. 188043). The findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of these foundations. The authors received excellent research support from Kevin Bruey, Connor Williams, and Alessandra Soto.</p> 2058<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2059<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/july/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_772to801_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 2060<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> Information on accessing the administrative register data and all code used in the analysis is available at: <a href="https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/ 2061OEGXOW" target="_blank">https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/<br /> 2062OEGXOW</a>.</p> 2063<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2064<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 2065<ul> 2066<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Woods, Tyler, Kristen Harknett, and Daniel Schneider. 2026. âThe Double Bind of Precarious Work: Creating Need and Undermining Supportâ Sociological Science 13: 772-801.</li> 2067<li><strong>Received</strong>: January 5, 2026</li> 2068<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: April 28, 2026</li> 2069<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Stephen Vaisey, Michael Rosenfeld</li> 2070<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a30</li> 2071</ul> 2072<p></div><!--/.tab--> 2073<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 2074</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 2075<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
2075<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
2075</div> 2076<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 2077<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-30-772/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 2078</div> 2079 </p> 2080 2081 2082 </section><!-- /.entry --> 2083 <div class="post-more"> 2084 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-30-772/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 2085</article><!-- /.post --> 2086 </div><!--/.block--> 2087<div class="fix"></div> <div class="block"> 2088 <article class="post-8242 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-achievement tag-education tag-inequality tag-schools tag-stratification tag-teachers"> 2089 <header> 2090 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-29-747/" rel="bookmark" title="Teacher Sorting and Inequalities in Student Achievement: Unequal Exposures and Differential Returns to Teacher Qualifications">Teacher Sorting and Inequalities in Student Achievement: Unequal Exposures and Differential Returns to Teacher Qualifications</a></h2> </header> 2091 2092<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-06-30T09:00:39-0700">June 30, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 2093 <section class="entry"> 2094 2095 <p>Said Hassan</p> 2096<h6>Sociological Science June 30, 2026<br /> 209710.15195/v13.a29</h6> 2098<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 2099<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 2100<div class="md-content"> 2101<h3>Abstract</h3> 2102<div> 2103Teachers play a formative role in shaping childrenâs school experiences and ultimately, their educational outcomes. In this study, I use full population Danish administrative data to explore the consequences of unequal access to qualified teachers in three steps. First, I document strong patterns of teacherâstudent sorting in Denmark, one of the worldâs most equal societies and generous welfare states. In short, teachers from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and with higher prior academic achievements tend to select into schools serving high-achieving children from privileged backgrounds. Second, I investigate the effect of exposure to teachers with different qualifications on studentsâ test score performance. To facilitate causal estimates, I exploit plausibly exogenous shocks to teacher changes induced by parental leave spells, which, I show, are unrelated to an extensive set of observed classroom characteristics, including student well-being and measures of classroom climate. Third, I explore differentials in the impact of teacher qualifications by studentsâ socioeconomic background. I find no consistent evidence of differential teacher effects, implying that teacher-induced learning inequalities are mainly driven by unequal exposure to highly qualified teachers, rather than unequal returns to qualifications. This suggests that policies equalizing access to qualified teachers may reduce learning disparities.</p> 2104<p><!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 2105<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 2106</div> 2107</div> 2108</div> 2109<div class="topLinks"> 2110<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/june/SocSci_v13_747to771.pdf" title="Download Hassan (1)" target="_blank">PDF (1136 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-29-747/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-29-747/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 2111<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a29" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 2112</div> 2113<p><div id="tabs-71" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 2114<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 2115<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 2116<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 2117<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 2118</ul> 2119<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 2120Teachers play a formative role in shaping childrenâs school experiences and ultimately, their educational outcomes. In this study, I use full population Danish administrative data to explore the consequences of unequal access to qualified teachers in three steps. First, I document strong patterns of teacherâstudent sorting in Denmark, one of the worldâs most equal societies and generous welfare states. In short, teachers from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and with higher prior academic achievements tend to select into schools serving high-achieving children from privileged backgrounds. Second, I investigate the effect of exposure to teachers with different qualifications on studentsâ test score performance. To facilitate causal estimates, I exploit plausibly exogenous shocks to teacher changes induced by parental leave spells, which, I show, are unrelated to an extensive set of observed classroom characteristics, including student well-being and measures of classroom climate. Third, I explore differentials in the impact of teacher qual
2120ifications by studentsâ socioeconomic background. I find no consistent evidence of differential teacher effects, implying that teacher-induced learning inequalities are mainly driven by unequal exposure to highly qualified teachers, rather than unequal returns to qualifications. This suggests that policies equalizing access to qualified teachers may reduce learning disparities.</p> 2121 2122<table id="tablepress-7-no-15" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 2123<tbody> 2124<tr class="row-1"> 2125 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 2126</tr> 2127</tbody> 2128</table> 2129<!-- #tablepress-7-no-15 from cache --> 2130<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2131<div class="tab tab-author-information">Said Hassan: Nuffield College, University of Oxford.<br /> 2132E-mail: [email protected].</p> 2133<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> I am grateful to Richard Breen, David Kirk, Per Engzell, Dirk Witteveen, Anders Hjorth-Trolle, Miriam Gensowski, Janne Jonsson, John Ermisch, Ahmed Tohamy, Anders Holm, and Lars Højsgaard Andersen for their very helpful comments and suggestions on earlier versions. This research was supported by the ROCKWOOL Foundation (grant number 1231).</p> 2134<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2135<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/june/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_747to771_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 2136<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> Information on accessing the administrative register data and all code used in the analysis is available at: <a href="https://github.com/s-aj-hassan/Teacher-Sorting-Achievement">https://github.com/s-aj-hassan/Teacher-Sorting-Achievement</a>.</p> 2137<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2138<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 2139<ul> 2140<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Hassan, Said. 2026. âTeacher Sorting and Inequalities in Student Achievement: Unequal Exposures and Differential Returns to Teacher Qualificationsâ Sociological Science 13: 747-771.</li> 2141<li><strong>Received</strong>: March 30, 2026</li> 2142<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: April 17, 2026</li> 2143<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Arnout van de Rijt, Herman van de Werfhorst</li> 2144<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a29</li> 2145</ul> 2146<p></div><!--/.tab--> 2147<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 2148</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 2149<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
2149<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
2149</div> 2150<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 2151<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-29-747/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 2152</div> 2153 </p> 2154 2155 2156 </section><!-- /.entry --> 2157 <div class="post-more"> 2158 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-29-747/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 2159</article><!-- /.post --> 2160 </div><!--/.block--> 2161 <div class="block last"> 2162 <article class="post-8235 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-educational-attainment tag-gender-gap tag-local-economy tag-political-conservatism tag-rural-urban-inequality tag-rurality"> 2163 <header> 2164 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-28-712/" rel="bookmark" title="The Exception to Womenâs Advantage: How Rurality, Red Counties, and the Local Economy Shape Gender Gaps in Educational Attainment">The Exception to Womenâs Advantage: How Rurality, Red Counties, and the Local Economy Shape Gender Gaps in Educational Attainment</a></h2> </header> 2165 2166<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-06-25T09:00:01-0700">June 25, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 2167 <section class="entry"> 2168 2169 <p>April Sutton, Bernardo Mackenna, Bolun Zhang, Amanda Bosky</p> 2170<h6>Sociological Science June 25, 2026<br /> 217110.15195/v13.a28</h6> 2172<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 2173<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 2174<div class="md-content"> 2175<h3>Abstract</h3> 2176<div> 2177Rural communities have lagged urban areas in the economic and sociocultural shifts thought to underlie womenâs advantage in bachelorâs degree (BA) attainment, such as the exp
2177ansion of high-status professional jobs and increasing gender egalitarianism. Using nationally representative data (ELS:2002), we bridge the gap between the macroscale factors theorized to drive womenâs educational gains and the local environments shaping youth outcomes by analyzing gender patterns in BA attainment across rural and urban high school students. Women who attended high school in metropolitan areas hold a clear BA advantage, but not women who attended nonmetropolitan high schools, where girls earn higher grades than boys yet attain bachelorâs degrees at similar rates. We find that, net of other characteristics, womenâs BA advantage is most suppressed in rural counties with strong Republican majorities and limited professional employment opportunities. Overall, our study suggests that womenâs BA advantage is geographically uneven and varies across local sociopolitical and economic conditions.</p> 2178<p><!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 2179<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 2180</div> 2181</div> 2182</div> 2183<div class="topLinks"> 2184<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/june/SocSci_v13_712to746.pdf" title="Download Sutton" target="_blank">PDF (1133 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-28-712/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-28-712/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 2185<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a28" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 2186</div> 2187<p><div id="tabs-6" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 2188<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 2189<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 2190<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 2191<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 2192</ul> 2193<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 2194Rural communities have lagged urban areas in the economic and sociocultural shifts thought to underlie womenâs advantage in bachelorâs degree (BA) attainment, such as the exp
2194ansion of high-status professional jobs and increasing gender egalitarianism. Using nationally representative data (ELS:2002), we bridge the gap between the macroscale factors theorized to drive womenâs educational gains and the local environments shaping youth outcomes by analyzing gender patterns in BA attainment across rural and urban high school students. Women who attended high school in metropolitan areas hold a clear BA advantage, but not women who attended nonmetropolitan high schools, where girls earn higher grades than boys yet attain bachelorâs degrees at similar rates. We find that, net of other characteristics, womenâs BA advantage is most suppressed in rural counties with strong Republican majorities and limited professional employment opportunities. Overall, our study suggests that womenâs BA advantage is geographically uneven and varies across local sociopolitical and economic conditions.</p> 2195 2196<table id="tablepress-7-no-16" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 2197<tbody> 2198<tr class="row-1"> 2199 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 2200</tr> 2201</tbody> 2202</table> 2203<!-- #tablepress-7-no-16 from cache --> 2204<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2205<div class="tab tab-author-information">April Sutton: UC San Diego-Dept. of Sociology.<br /> 2206E-mail: [email protected].</p> 2207<p>
2207Bernardo Mackenna: UC San Diego-Dept. of Sociology.<br /> 2208E-mail: [email protected].</p> 2209<p>Bolun Zhang: UC San Diego-Dept. of Sociology.<br /> 2210E-mail: [email protected].</p> 2211<p>Amanda Bosky: UC San Diego-Dept. of Sociology.<br /> 2212E-mail: [email protected].</p> 2213<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> This research was supported by a National Academy of Education/Spencer postdoctoral fellowship and a UC San Diego Hellman Fellowship awarded to April Sutton. We are grateful for the helpful feedback of anonymous reviewers. The article also benefited from presentations at the NAEd Annual Meeting and Fall Retreat and the Population Association of America.</p> 2214<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2215<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/june/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_712to746_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 2216<p><strong>Reproducibility Package:</strong> A replication package, including code, documentation, and links/DOIs to data sources, is available at Zenodo (<a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17336597">doi:10.5281/zenodo.17336597</a>). The primary analyses use restricted-access data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) within the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), U.S. Department of Education. These data are available only to approved investigators through the IES/NCES application process (<a href="https://ies.ed.gov/about/restricted-use-data">https://ies.ed.gov/about/restricted-use-data</a>). We provide the URLs/DOIs and table identifiers needed to retrieve the publicly available data (e.g., U.S. Census summary files) we used to augment the ELS:2002.</p> 2217<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2218<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 2219<ul> 2220<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Sutton, April, Bernardo Mackenna, Bolun Zhang, and Amanda Bosky. 2026. âThe Exception to Womenâs Advantage: How Rurality, Red Counties, and the Local Economy Shape Gender Gaps in Educational Attainmentâ Sociological Science 13:712-746.</li> 2221<li><strong>Received</strong>: May 15, 2025</li> 2222<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: October 13, 2025</li> 2223<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Arnout van de Rijt, Kristian B. Karlson</li> 2224<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a28</li> 2225</ul> 2226<p></div><!--/.tab--> 2227<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 2228</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 2229<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
2229<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
2229</div> 2230<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 2231<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-28-712/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 2232</div> 2233 </p> 2234 2235 2236 </section><!-- /.entry --> 2237 <div class="post-more"> 2238 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-28-712/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 2239</article><!-- /.post --> 2240 </div><!--/.block--> 2241<div class="fix"></div> <div class="block"> 2242 <article class="post-8227 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-crime-news tag-criminal-justice tag-journalism tag-metrics tag-professions tag-quantification"> 2243 <header> 2244 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-27-685/" rel="bookmark" title="Clickbait Crime News? Metrics and Professional Authority in Local Newsrooms">Clickbait Crime News? Metrics and Professional Authority in Local Newsrooms</a></h2> </header> 2245 2246<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-06-22T09:00:58-0700">June 22, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 2247 <section class="entry"> 2248 2249 <p>Jonathan Ben-Menachem</p> 2250<h6>Sociological Science June 22, 2026<br /> 225110.15195/v13.a27</h6> 2252<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 2253<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 2254<div class="md-content"> 2255<h3>Abstract</h3> 2256<div> 2257Existing research on newsroom metrics documents how journalists construct compatibility between discordant professional and commercial evaluation frameworks. This study examines the underexplored case where metrics validate existing practices. Drawing on interviews with 58 crime journalists in 40 U.S. newsrooms, I find that reporters whose work consistently performed well on audience metrics often defended professional evaluation criteria. Editors facilitated this defense through brokerage, absorbing commercial logics so reporters could experience their work as professionally guided. Market position structured interpretive responses: reporters could avoid metrics, override them, selectively appropriate them, or integrate them into practice. The transition from pageview to subscription regimes reshaped whether concordance was experienced as contaminating or legitimating. Even under concordance, journalists defended professional evaluation criteria.</p> 2258<p><!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 2259<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 2260</div> 2261</div> 2262</div> 2263<div class="topLinks"> 2264<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/june/SocSci_v13_685to711.pdf" title="Download Menachem" target="_blank">PDF (948 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-27-685/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-27-685/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 2265<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a27" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 2266</div> 2267<p><div id="tabs-64" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 2268<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 2269<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 2270<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 2271<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 2272</ul> 2273<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 2274Existing research on newsroom metrics documents how journalists construct compatibility between discordant professional and commercial evaluation frameworks. This study examines the underexplored case where metrics validate existing practices. Drawing on interviews with 58 crime journalists in 40 U.S. newsrooms, I find that reporters whose work consistently performed well on audie
2274nce metrics often defended professional evaluation criteria. Editors facilitated this defense through brokerage, absorbing commercial logics so reporters could experience their work as professionally guided. Market position structured interpretive responses: reporters could avoid metrics, override them, selectively appropriate them, or integrate them into practice. The transition from pageview to subscription regimes reshaped whether concordance was experienced as contaminating or legitimating. Even under concordance, journalists defended professional evaluation criteria.</p> 2275 2276<table id="tablepress-7-no-17" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 2277<tbody> 2278<tr class="row-1"> 2279 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 2280</tr> 2281</tbody> 2282</table> 2283<!-- #tablepress-7-no-17 from cache --> 2284<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2285<div class="tab tab-author-information">Jonathan Ben-Menachem: Department of Sociology, Columbia University.<br /> 2286E-mail: [email protected].</p> 2287<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> I gratefully acknowledge feedback from my colleagues in Columbia Sociologyâs Qual Lab, my graduate school cohort, and several anonymous reviewers and journal editors. In particular, I thank Ari Galper, Emily Mazo, Tey Meadow, Michael Schudson, Mario Small, and Bruce Western for their generous engagement with this project at various stages. Finally, I thank the journalists who shared their time and experiences with me.</p> 2288<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2289<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/june/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_685to711_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 2290<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2291<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 2292<ul> 2293<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Ben-Menachem, Jonathan. 2026. âClickbait Crime News? Metrics and Professional Authority in Local Newsroomsâ Sociological Science 13: 685-711.</li> 2294<li><strong>Received</strong>: March 11, 2026</li> 2295<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: May 5, 2026</li> 2296<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Kieran Healy</li> 2297<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a27</li> 2298</ul> 2299<p></div><!--/.tab--> 2300<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 2301</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 2302<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
2302<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
2302</div> 2303<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 2304<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-27-685/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 2305</div> 2306 </p> 2307 2308 2309 </section><!-- /.entry --> 2310 <div class="post-more"> 2311 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-27-685/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 2312</article><!-- /.post --> 2313 </div><!--/.block--> 2314 <div class="block last"> 2315 <article class="post-8214 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-articles tag-experimental-methods tag-gender tag-housework tag-visual-conjoint"> 2316 <header> 2317 <h2 class="title"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-26-661/" rel="bookmark" title="Beyond Text: Using AI-Generated Visual Conjoints to Study Gender and Housework Attribution">Beyond Text: Using AI-Generated Visual Conjoints to Study Gender and Housework Attribution</a></h2> </header> 2318 2319<div class="post-meta"><span class="small">By</span> <span class="author vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/author/parkerweb/" rel="author">Parker Webservices</a></span></span> <span class="small">on</span> <abbr class="date time published" title="2026-06-16T09:00:22-0700">June 16, 2026</abbr> <span class="small">in</span> <span class="categories"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/">Articles</a></span> </div> 2320 <section class="entry"> 2321 2322 <p>Léa Pessin, Kevin Munger</p> 2323<h6>Sociological Science June 16, 2026<br /> 232410.15195/v13.a26</h6> 2325<p><!-- Modal Window Begins--></p> 2326<div id="modal-276" class="md-modal md-effect-1"> 2327<div class="md-content"> 2328<h3>Abstract</h3> 2329<div> 2330Despite substantial gender convergence in education and employment, women continue to perform a disproportionate share of housework. We employ a novel visual conjoint experiment to isolate the normative mechanisms underlying this persistent inequality. Using AI-generated photorealistic images, we systematically vary the tidiness of domestic spaces, room type, source of mess, socioeconomic status, and the gender and race/ethnicity of occupants, alongside text describing couplesâ employment arrangements. A quota sample of 2,994 U.S. respondents each evaluated five vignettes, yielding 14,970 observations. We find that gender effects operate primarily through responsibility attribution rather than through differential perception of messiness or anticipated social judgment. Women are assigned significantly more cleaning responsibility than men, with the gender penalty concentrated among dual-earner couples. Child-caused mess is perceived as messier than adult-caused mess yet carries reduced social consequences, suggesting that it operates as a legitimating excuse. Our findings suggest that gender equality in paid work is necessary for achieving gender equality in housework, but that it is not sufficient, and that this gap will persist absent changes in normative expectations around responsibility for housework.</p> 2331<p><!-- Abstract Ends --><br /> 2332<button class="md-close">Close</button></p> 2333</div> 2334</div> 2335</div> 2336<div class="topLinks"> 2337<p><div class="download-link"><!--<img decoding="async" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/images/crystal/document.png" style="height:20px;vertical-align:middle;" />--> <a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/june/SocSci_v13_661to684.pdf" title="Download Munger" target="_blank">PDF (1519 views)</a></div><span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-26-661/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> <a class="lnk_modal-open" href="#" data-modal="/articles-v13-26-661/?feed=cite" data-modaltitle="" data-modaldesc="">Citation</a></p> 2338<div class="altmetric-embed" data-badge-popover="right" data-badge-type="donut" data-doi="10.15195/v13.a26" data-hide-no-mentions="true" data-hide-less-than="0"></div> 2339</div> 2340<p><div id="tabs-2" class="shortcode-tabs boxed"><ul class="tab_titles"> 2341<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-1">Abstract</a></li> 2342<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-2">Author Information</a></li> 2343<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-3">Supplemental Material</a></li> 2344<li class="nav-tab"><a href="#tab-4">Process Info</a></li> 2345</ul> 2346<div class="tab tab-abstract"><br /> 2347Despite substantial gender convergence in education and employment, women continue to perform a disproportionate share of housework. We employ a novel visual conjoint experiment to isolate the normative mechanisms underlying this persistent inequality. Using AI-generated photorealistic images, we systematically vary the tidiness of domestic spaces, room type, source of mess, socioeconomic status, and the gender and race/ethnicity of occupants, alongside text describing couplesâ employment arrangements. A quota sample of 2,994 U.S. respondents each evaluated five vignettes, yielding 14,970 observations. We find that gender effects operate primarily through responsibility attribution rather than through differential perception of messiness or anticipated social judgment. Women are assigned significantly more cleaning responsibility than men, with the gender penalty concentrated among dual-earner couples. Child-caused mess is perceived as messier than adult-caused mess yet carries reduced social consequences, suggesting that it operates as a legitimating excuse. Our findings suggest that gender equality in paid work is necessary for achieving gender equality in housework, but that it is not sufficient, and that this gap will persist absent changes in normative expectations around responsibility for housework.</p> 2348 2349<table id="tablepress-7-no-18" class="tablepress tablepress-id-7"> 2350<tbody> 2351<tr class="row-1"> 2352 <td class="column-1"><a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license"><img decoding="async" style="border-width: 0;" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" alt="Creative
2352Commons License" /></a></td><td class="column-2">This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.</td> 2353</tr> 2354</tbody> 2355</table> 2356<!-- #tablepress-7-no-18 from cache --> 2357<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2358<div class="tab tab-author-information">Léa Pessin: Department of Social and Political Science, European University Institute, Fiesole, Italy.<br /> 2359E-mail: [email protected].</p> 2360<p>Kevin Munger: Department of Social and Political Science, European University Institute, Fiesole, Italy.<br /> 2361E-mail: [email protected]</p> 2362<p><strong>Acknowledgments:</strong> This work has benefited from generous feedback from the Bocconi Dondena Seminar Speaker Series and the LMU Munich Department of Sociology Research Colloquium. Pessin acknowledges funding by the European Union, under the European Research Council grant for the WeEqualize project (grant agreement no. 101117327). Views and opinions expressed are, however, those of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Council Executive Agency. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them.</p> 2363<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2364<div class="tab tab-supplemental-material"><a title="Supplemental Materials" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/download/volume-13/june/supplemental_materials/SocSci_v13_661to684_supp.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Supplemental Materials</a></p> 2365<p><strong>Reproducibility Package</strong>: Replication materials including all data and code and documentation necessary to reproduce all empirical results reported in the article can be found at <a href="https:// github.com/kmunger/Housekeeping_SocSci_Replication">https://github.com/kmunger/Housekeeping_SocSci_Replication</a>.</p> 2366<p></div><!--/.tab--><br /> 2367<div class="tab tab-process-info"></p> 2368<ul> 2369<li><strong>Citation</strong>: Pessin, Léa, Kevin Munger, 2026. âBeyond Text: Using AI-Generated Visual Conjoints to Study Gender and Housework Attributionâ Sociological Science 13: 661-684.</li> 2370<li><strong>Received</strong>: January 20, 2026</li> 2371<li><strong>Accepted</strong>: April 14, 2026</li> 2372<li><strong>Editors</strong>: Ari Adut, Elizabeth Bruch</li> 2373<li><strong>DOI</strong>: 10.15195/v13.a26</li> 2374</ul> 2375<p></div><!--/.tab--> 2376<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 2377</div><!--/.tabs--><br /> 2378<div class="woo-sc-twitter left"><a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button"data-count="horizontal">Tweet</a>
2378<script type="text/javascript" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
2378</div> 2379<div class="woo-fblike fl"> 2380<iframe src="https://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-26-661/&layout=standard&show_faces=false&width=450&action=like&colorscheme=light&font=segoe+ui&locale=en_US" frameborder="0" allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:auto; height:25px;"></iframe> 2381</div> 2382 </p> 2383 2384 2385 </section><!-- /.entry --> 2386 <div class="post-more"> 2387 <span class="post-comments comments"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v13-26-661/#respond"><i class="icon-comment"></i> 0</a></span> </div> 2388</article><!-- /.post --> 2389 </div><!--/.block--> 2390<div class="fix"></div><div class="pagination woo-pagination"><span aria-current="page" class="page-numbers current">1</span> 2391<a class="page-numbers" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/page/2/">2</a> 2392<span class="page-numbers dots">…</span> 2393<a class="page-numbers" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/page/24/">24</a> 2394<a class="next page-numbers" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/page/2/">Next →</a></div> 2395 </section><!-- /#main --> 2396 2397 <aside id="sidebar"> 2398<div id="text-23" class="widget widget_text"><h3>Why Sociological Science?</h3> <div class="textwidget"><p>Sociological Science is a general interest, open access sociology journal committed to the highest standards of rigor and relevance. We aim to be the flagship journal for social scientists committed to advancing a general understanding of social processes.</p> 2399</div> 2400 </div><div id="woo_search-6" class="widget widget_woo_search"><h3>Search</h3><div class="search_main"> 2401 <form method="get" class="searchform" action="https://sociologicalscience.com/" > 2402 <input type="text" class="field s" name="s" value="Search..." onfocus="if (this.value == 'Search...') {this.value = '';}" onblur="if (this.value == '') {this.value = 'Search...';}" /> 2403 <button type="submit" class="icon-search submit" name="submit" value=""></button> 2404 </form> 2405 <div class="fix"></div> 2406</div> 2407</div><div id="text-22" class="widget widget_text"><h3>Subscribe to New Article Alerts</h3> <div class="textwidget"><div id="mc_embed_shell"> 2408 <link href="//cdn-images.mailchimp.com/embedcode/classic-061523.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"> 2409<div id="mc_embed_signup"> 2410 <form action="https://SociologicalScience.us3.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=a2bf4ff62c5ac95335ecd1e74&id=354a10882b&f_id=006b10e2f0" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate" target="_blank"> 2411 <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> 2412 <div class="indicates-required"><span class="asterisk">*</span> indicates required</div> 2413 <div class="mc-field-group"><label for="mce-EMAIL">Email Address <span class="asterisk">*</span></label><input type="email" name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" required="" value=""><span id="mce-EMAIL-HELPERTEXT" class="helper_text"></span></div> 2414 <div id="mce-responses" class="clear foot"> 2415 <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display: none;"></div> 2416 <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display: none;"></div> 2417 </div> 2418 <div aria-hidden="true" style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"> 2419 /* real people should not fill this in and expect good things - do not remove this or risk form bot signups */ 2420 <input type="text" name="b_a2bf4ff62c5ac95335ecd1e74_354a10882b" tabindex="-1" value=""> 2421 </div> 2422 <div class="optionalParent"> 2423 <input type="submit" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button" value="Subscribe"> 2424 </div> 2425 </div> 2426</form> 2427</div>
2428<script type="text/javascript" src="//s3.amazonaws.com/downloads.mailchimp.com/js/mc-validate.js"></script>
2428<script type="text/javascript">(function($) {window.fnames = new Array(); window.ftypes = new Array();fnames[0]='EMAIL';ftypes[0]='email';fnames[1]='FNAME';ftypes[1]='text';fnames[2]='LNAME';ftypes[2]='text';}(jQuery));var $mcj = jQuery.noConflict(true);</script>
2428</div> 2429 2430</div> 2431 </div><div id="media_image-2" class="widget widget_media_image"><a href="https://doaj.org/toc/2330-6696"><img width="110" height="56" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/DOAJ_Indexed_logo_small-1.png" class="image wp-image-4089 attachment-full size-full" alt="" style="max-width: 100%; height: auto;" decoding="async" loading="lazy" /></a></div><div id="media_image-3" class="widget widget_media_image"><a href="https://www.clockss.org/clockss/Home"><img width="90" height="82" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/clockss_original_logo_boxed_ai-cropped-90-300x274.png" class="image wp-image-3474 attachment-90x82 size-90x82" alt="" style="max-width: 100%; height: auto;" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/clockss_original_logo_boxed_ai-cropped-90-300x274.png 300w, https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/clockss_original_logo_boxed_ai-cropped-90.png 375w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 90px) 100vw, 90px" /></a></div></aside><!-- /#sidebar --> 2432 2433 </div><!-- /#main-sidebar-container --> 2434 2435 2436 </div><!-- /#content --> 2437 2438 2439<a href="#" onclick="window.open('https://www.sitelock.com/verify.php?site=sociologicalscience.com','SiteLock','width=600,height=600,left=160,top=170');" ><img class="img-responsive" alt="SiteLock" title="SiteLock" src="https://shield.sitelock.com/shield/sociologicalscience.com" /></a> <footer id="footer" class="col-full"> 2440 2441 2442 <div id="copyright" class="col-left"> 2443 <p><p>© 2014-2021 Sociological Science. All Rights Reserved.         ISSN: 2330-6696         <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a></p></p> </div> 2444 2445 <div id="credit" class="col-right"> 2446 <p><p><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/image-credits/">Image Credits</a></p> 2447</p> </div> 2448 2449 </footer> 2450 2451 2452 </div><!-- /#inner-wrapper --> 2453 2454</div><!-- /#wrapper --> 2455 2456<div class="fix"></div><!--/.fix--> 2457 2458<link rel='stylesheet' id='metaslider-flex-slider-css' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/ml-slider/assets/sliders/flexslider/flexslider.css?ver=3.113.0' media='all' property='stylesheet' /> 2459<link rel='stylesheet' id='metaslider-public-css' href='https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/ml-slider/assets/metaslider/public.css?ver=3.113.0' media='all' property='stylesheet' /> 2460<style id="metaslider-public-inline-css"> 2461@media only screen and (max-width: 767px) { .hide-arrows-smartphone .flex-direction-nav, .hide-navigation-smartphone .flex-control-paging, .hide-navigation-smartphone .flex-control-nav, .hide-navigation-smartphone .filmstrip, .hide-caption-smartphone .caption-wrap, .hide-slideshow-smartphone, .metaslider-hidden-content.hide-smartphone{ display: none!important; }}@media only screen and (min-width : 768px) and (max-width: 1023px) { .hide-arrows-tablet .flex-direction-nav, .hide-navigation-tablet .flex-control-paging, .hide-navigation-tablet .flex-control-nav, .hide-navigation-tablet .filmstrip, .hide-caption-tablet .caption-wrap, .hide-slideshow-tablet, .metaslider-hidden-content.hide-tablet{ display: none!important; }}@media only screen and (min-width : 1024px) and (max-width: 1439px) { .hide-arrows-laptop .flex-direction-nav, .hide-navigation-laptop .flex-control-paging, .hide-navigation-laptop .flex-control-nav, .hide-navigation-laptop .filmstrip, .hide-caption-laptop .caption-wrap, .hide-slideshow-laptop, .metaslider-hidden-content.hide-laptop{ display: none!important; }}@media only screen and (min-width : 1440px) { .hide-arrows-desktop .flex-direction-nav, .hide-navigation-desktop .flex-control-paging, .hide-navigation-desktop .flex-control-nav, .hide-navigation-desktop .filmstrip, .hide-caption-desktop .caption-wrap, .hide-slideshow-desktop, .metaslider-hidden-content.hide-desktop{ display: none!important; }} 2462/*# sourceURL=metaslider-public-inline-css */ 2463</style>
2464<script id="metaslider-script-js-extra"> 2465var wpData = {"baseUrl":"https://sociologicalscience.com"}; 2466//# sourceURL=metaslider-script-js-extra 2467</script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2467
2467
2468<script id="metaslider-script-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/ml-slider/assets/metaslider/script.min.js?ver=3.113.0"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2468
2468
2469<script id="metaslider-flex-slider-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/ml-slider/assets/sliders/flexslider/jquery.flexslider.min.js?ver=3.113.0"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2469
2469
2470<script id="metaslider-flex-slider-js-after"> 2471var metaslider_6240 = function($) {$('#metaslider_6240').addClass('flexslider'); 2472 $('#metaslider_6240').flexslider({ 2473 slideshowSpeed:4500, 2474 animation:"fade", 2475 controlNav:false, 2476 directionNav:false, 2477 pauseOnHover:true, 2478 direction:"horizontal", 2479 reverse:false, 2480 keyboard:true, 2481 touch:true, 2482 animationSpeed:600, 2483 prevText:"Previous", 2484 nextText:"Next", 2485 smoothHeight:false, 2486 fadeFirstSlide:false, 2487 slideshow:true, 2488 pausePlay:false, 2489 showPlayText:false, 2490 playText:false, 2491 pauseText:false, 2492 before: function(slider) { 2493 2494 jQuery('#metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-lazy-wrap[data-playing="1"], #metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-eager').each(function () { 2495 window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid && window.metaslider.livid.pause(this); 2496 }); 2497 2498 }, 2499 after: function(slider) { 2500 2501 2502 window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid && window.metaslider.livid.markTransitioned('metaslider_6240'); 2503 jQuery('#metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-lazy-wrap[data-autoplay-on-active="1"], #metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-eager[data-autoplay-on-active="1"]').each(function () { 2504 window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid && window.metaslider.livid.hold(this); 2505 }); 2506 jQuery('#metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-lazy-wrap[data-playing="1"], #metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-eager').each(function () { 2507 window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid && window.metaslider.livid.resume(this); 2508 }); 2509 jQuery('#metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-lazy-wrap[data-autoplay-on-active="1"]:not([data-playing="1"])').each(function () { 2510 window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid && window.metaslider.livid.triggerAutoplay(this); 2511 }); 2512 2513 2514 // Re-disable focusable elements after slide transitions 2515 var slider_ = $('#metaslider_6240'); 2516 2517 // Disable focusable elements in slides with aria-hidden='true' 2518 slider_.find('.slides li[aria-hidden="true"] a, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] button, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] input, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] select, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] textarea, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] [tabindex]:not([tabindex="-1"])').attr('tabindex', '-1'); 2519 2520 // Disable focusable elements in cloned slides 2521 slider_.find('.slides li.clone a, .slides li.clone button, .slides li.clone input, .slides li.clone select, .slides li.clone textarea, .slides li.clone [tabindex]:not([tabindex="-1"])').attr('tabindex', '-1'); 2522 2523 }, 2524 start: function(slider) { 2525 2526 if (window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid) { 2527 window.metaslider.livid.setAdvanceOnEnd('metaslider_6240', true, ''); 2528 } 2529 2530 jQuery('#metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-lazy-wrap[data-autoplay-on-active="1"], #metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-eager[data-autoplay-on-active="1"]').each(function () { 2531 window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid && window.metaslider.livid.hold(this); 2532 }); 2533 jQuery('#metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-lazy-wrap[data-playing="1"], #metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-eager').each(function () { 2534 window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid && window.metaslider.livid.resume(this); 2535 }); 2536 jQuery('#metaslider_6240 .flex-active-slide .ms-livid-lazy-wrap[data-autoplay-on-active="1"]:not([data-playing="1"])').each(function () { 2537 window.metaslider && window.metaslider.livid && window.metaslider.livid.triggerAutoplay(this); 2538 }); 2539 2540 2541 // Function to disable focusable elements in aria-hidden slides 2542 function disableAriaHiddenFocusableElements() { 2543 var slider_ = $('#metaslider_6240'); 2544 2545 // Disable focusable elements in slides with aria-hidden='true' 2546 slider_.find('.slides li[aria-hidden="true"] a, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] button, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] input, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] select, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] textarea, .slides li[aria-hidden="true"] [tabindex]:not
2546([tabindex="-1"])').attr('tabindex', '-1'); 2547 2548 // Disable focusable elements in cloned slides (these should never be focusable) 2549 slider_.find('.slides li.clone a, .slides li.clone button, .slides li.clone input, .slides li.clone select, .slides li.clone textarea, .slides li.clone [tabindex]:not([tabindex="-1"])').attr('tabindex', '-1'); 2550 } 2551 2552 // Initial setup 2553 disableAriaHiddenFocusableElements(); 2554 2555 // Observer for aria-hidden and clone changes 2556 if (typeof MutationObserver !== 'undefined') { 2557 var ariaObserver = new MutationObserver(function(mutations) { 2558 var shouldUpdate = false; 2559 mutations.forEach(function(mutation) { 2560 if (mutation.type === 'attributes' && mutation.attributeName === 'aria-hidden') { 2561 shouldUpdate = true; 2562 } 2563 if (mutation.type === 'childList') { 2564 // Check if cloned slides were added/removed 2565 for (var i = 0; i < mutation.addedNodes.length; i++) { 2566 if (mutation.addedNodes[i].nodeType === 1 && 2567 (mutation.addedNodes[i].classList.contains('clone') || 2568 mutation.addedNodes[i].querySelector && mutation.addedNodes[i].querySelector('.clone'))) { 2569 shouldUpdate = true; 2570 break; 2571 } 2572 } 2573 } 2574 }); 2575 if (shouldUpdate) { 2576 setTimeout(disableAriaHiddenFocusableElements, 10); 2577 } 2578 }); 2579 2580 var targetNode = $('#metaslider_6240')[0]; 2581 if (targetNode) { 2582 ariaObserver.observe(targetNode, { 2583 attributes: true, 2584 attributeFilter: ['aria-hidden'], 2585 childList: true, 2586 subtree: true 2587 }); 2588 } 2589 } 2590 2591 } 2592 }); 2593 $(document).trigger('metaslider/initialized', '#metaslider_6240'); 2594 }; 2595 var timer_metaslider_6240 = function() { 2596 var slider = !window.jQuery ? window.setTimeout(timer_metaslider_6240, 100) : !jQuery.isReady ? window.setTimeout(timer_metaslider_6240, 1) : metaslider_6240(window.jQuery); 2597 }; 2598 timer_metaslider_6240(); 2599//# sourceURL=metaslider-flex-slider-js-after 2600</script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2600
2600
2601<script type="speculationrules"> 2602{"prefetch":[{"source":"document","where":{"and":[{"href_matches":"/*"},{"not":{"href_matches":["/wp-*.php","/wp-admin/*","/wp-content/uploads/*","/wp-content/*","/wp-content/plugins/*","/wp-content/themes/sociologicalscience/*","/wp-content/themes/canvas/*","/*\\?(.+)"]}},{"not":{"selector_matches":"a[rel~=\"nofollow\"]"}},{"not":{"selector_matches":".no-prefetch, .no-prefetch a"}}]},"eagerness":"conservative"}]} 2603</script>
2603 2604
2604<script> 2605 jQuery(document).ready(function(){ 2606 //TODO 2607 skomfare2ModalWindow = jQuery('div.md-modal[id^="albdesign-modal-"]'); 2608 skomfare2ModalWindow.bind('webkitAnimationEnd oanimationend msAnimationEnd animationend transitionend webkitTransitionEnd oTransitionEnd MSTransitionEnd',function(e) { 2609 skomfare2ModalWindow.addClass('skomfare2AnimationEnded'); 2610 }); 2611 2612 jQuery('.md-close').click(function(){ 2613 skomfare2ModalWindow.removeClass('skomfare2AnimationEnded'); 2614 }); 2615 2616 jQuery('.md-overlay').each(function(){ 2617 jQuery(this).click(function(){ 2618 jQuery('.md-modal').each(function(){ 2619 skomfare2ModalWindow.removeClass('skomfare2AnimationEnded'); 2620 }); 2621 }); 2622 }); 2623 }); 2624 </script>
2624 2625 <button type="button" aria-controls="rmp-container-6289" aria-label="Menu Trigger" id="rmp_menu_trigger-6289" class="rmp_menu_trigger rmp-menu-trigger-boring"> 2626 <span class="rmp-trigger-box"> 2627 <span class="responsive-menu-pro-inner"></span> 2628 </span> 2629 <div class="rmp-trigger-label rmp-trigger-label-bottom"> 2630 <span class="rmp-trigger-text">Menu</span> 2631 </div> 2632 </button> 2633 <div id="rmp-container-6289" class="rmp-container rmp-container rmp-slide-top"> 2634 <div id="rmp-menu-title-6289" class="rmp-menu-title"> 2635 <span class="rmp-menu-title-link"> 2636 <span></span> </span> 2637 </div> 2638 <div id="rmp-menu-wrap-6289" class="rmp-menu-wrap"><ul id="rmp-menu-6289" class="rmp-menu" role="menubar" aria-label="Default Menu"><li id="rmp-menu-item-171" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-top-level-item" role="none"><a title="Articles" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/category/articles/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Articles</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-560" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-has-children rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-item-has-children rmp-menu-top-level-item" role="none"><a title="For Authors" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >For Authors<div class="rmp-menu-subarrow">â¼</div></a><ul aria-label="For Authors" 2639 role="menu" data-depth="2" 2640 class="rmp-submenu rmp-submenu-depth-1"><li id="rmp-menu-item-385" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Editorial and Review Process" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/editorial-and-review-process/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Editorial and Review Process</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-522" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Reactions and Comments" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/reactions-and-comments/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Reactions and Comments</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-360" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Publication Criteria" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/publication-criteria/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Publication Criteria</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-361" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Submission Guidelines" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/submission-guidelines/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Submission Guidelines</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-6687" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/reproducibility-policy/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Reproducibility Policy</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-519" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Manuscript Preparation" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/manuscript-preparation/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Manuscript Preparation</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-546" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Fee Structure" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/for-authors/submission-and-publication-fees/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Fee Structure</a></li></ul></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-167" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-has-children rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-item-has-children rmp-menu-top-level-item" role="none"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >About<div class="rmp-menu-subarrow">â¼</div></a><ul aria-label="About" 2641 role="menu" data-depth="2" 2642 class="rmp-submenu rmp-submenu-depth-1"><li id="rmp-menu-item-359" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Journal Information" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/journal-information/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Journal Information</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-168" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Editorial Team" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/editteam/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Editorial Team</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-380" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a title="Journal Structure" href="https://sociologicalscience.com/about/journal-structure/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Journal Structure</a></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-3491" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-sub-level-item" role="none"><a href="https://sociologicalscience.com/publisher/" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Publisher</a></li></ul></li><li id="rmp-menu-item-3733" class=" menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom rmp-menu-item rmp-menu-top-level-item" role="none"><a href="https://sociological-science.scholasticahq.com/for-authors" class="rmp-menu-item-link" role="menuitem" >Submit Article</a></li></ul></div> <div id="rmp-search-box-6289" class="rmp-search-box"> 2643 <form action="https://sociologicalscience.com/" class="rmp-search-form" role="search"> 2644 <input type="search" name="s" title="Search" placeholder="Search" class="rmp-search-box"> 2645 </form>
2646 </div> 2647 </div> 2648
2648<script>
vendor: 345 bytes, lines 2648-2654
2648 2649 (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){ 2650 (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o), 2651 m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m) 2652 })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga'); 2653 2654 ga('create', '
2654UA-48175451-1
vendor: 61 bytes, lines 2654-2656
2654', 'sociologicalscience.com'); 2655 ga('send', 'pageview'); 2656
2657</script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2657
2657
2658<script id="wpfb-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/wp-filebase/js/common.js?ver=3.4.4"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2658
2658
2659<script id="albdesign-modal-popup-classie-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/nifty-modal-popup/js/classie.js?ver=1"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2659
2659
2660<script id="albdesign-modal-popup-effects-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/nifty-modal-popup/js/modalEffects.js?ver=1.0.0"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2660
2660
2661<script id="albdesign-modal-popup-cssParser-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/nifty-modal-popup/js/cssParser.js?ver=1.0.0"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2661
2661
2662<script id="albdesign-modal-popup-polyfill-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/plugins/nifty-modal-popup/js/css-filters-polyfill.js?ver=0.22"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2662
2662
2663<script id="wp-emoji-settings" type="application/json"> 2664{"baseUrl":"https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/17.0.2/72x72/","ext":".png","svgUrl":"https://s.w.org/images/core/emoji/17.0.2/svg/","svgExt":".svg","source":{"concatemoji":"https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/js/wp-emoji-release.min.js?ver=c495499e2999688f9a3fa374cd169d5f"}} 2665</script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2665
2665
2666<script type="module"> 2667/*! This file is auto-generated */ 2668var e="script#wp-emoji-settings",t=document.querySelector(e);if(!(t instanceof HTMLScriptElement))throw new Error("Element missing: "+e);const r=JSON.parse(t.text),s=(window._wpemojiSettings=r,"wpEmojiSettingsSupports"),o=["flag","emoji"];function i(e){try{var t={supportTests:e,timestamp:(new Date).valueOf()};sessionStorage.setItem(s,JSON.stringify(t))}catch(e){}}function c(e,t,n){e.clearRect(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height),e.fillText(t,0,0);t=new Uint32Array(e.getImageData(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height).data);e.clearRect(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height),e.fillText(n,0,0);const r=new Uint32Array(e.getImageData(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height).data);return t.every((e,t)=>e===r[t])}function p(e,t){e.clearRect(0,0,e.canvas.width,e.canvas.height),e.fillText(t,0,0);var n=e.getImageData(16,16,1,1);for(let e=0;e<n.data.length;e++)if(0!==n.data[e])return!1;return!0}function u(e,t,n,r){switch(t){case"flag":return n(e,"\ud83c\udff3\ufe0f\u200d\u26a7\ufe0f","\ud83c\udff3\ufe0f\u200b\u26a7\ufe0f")?!1:!n(e,"\ud83c\udde8\ud83c\uddf6","\ud83c\udde8\u200b\ud83c\uddf6")&&!n(e,"\ud83c\udff4\udb40\udc67\udb40\udc62\udb40\udc65\udb40\udc6e\udb40\udc67\udb40\udc7f","\ud83c\udff4\u200b\udb40\udc67\u200b\udb40\udc62\u200b\udb40\udc65\u200b\udb40\udc6e\u200b\udb40\udc67\u200b\udb40\udc7f");case"emoji":return!r(e,"\ud83e\u1fac8")}return!1}function f(e,t,n,r){let a;const s=(a="undefined"!=typeof WorkerGlobalScope&&self instanceof WorkerGlobalScope?new OffscreenCanvas(300,150):document.createElement("canvas")).getContext("2d",{willReadFrequently:!0}),o=(s.textBaseline="top",s.font="600 32px Arial",{});return e.forEach(e=>{o[e]=t(s,e,n,r)}),o}function a(e){var t=document.createElement("script");t.src=e,t.defer=!0,document.head.appendChild(t)}r.supports={everything:!0,everythingExceptFlag:!0},new Promise(t=>{let n=function(){try{var e=JSON.parse(sessionStorage.getItem(s));if("object"==typeof e&&"number"==typeof e.timestamp&&(new Date).valueOf()<e.timestamp+604800&&"object"==typeof e.supportTests)return e.supportTests}catch(e){}return null}();if(!n){if("undefined"!=typeof Worker&&"undefined"!=typeof OffscreenCanvas&&"undefined"!=typeof URL&&URL.createObjectURL&&"undefined"!=typeof Blob)try{var e="postMessage("+f.toString()+"("+[JSON.stringify(o),u.toString(),c.toString(),p.toString()].join(",")+"));",r=new Blob([e],{type:"text/javascript"});const a=new Worker(URL.createObjectURL(r),{name:"wpTestEmojiSupports"});return void(a.onmessage=e=>{i(n=e.data),a.terminate(),t(n)})}catch(e){}i(n=f(o,u,c,p))}t(n)}).then(e=>{for(const n in e)r.supports[n]=e[n],r.supports.everything=r.supports.everything&&r.supports[n],"flag"!==n&&(r.supports.everythingExceptFlag=r.supports.everythingExceptFlag&&r.supports[n]);var t;r.supports.everythingExceptFlag=r.supports.everythingExceptFlag&&!r.supports.flag,r.supports.everything||((t=r.source||{}).concatemoji?a(t.concatemoji):t.wpemoji&&t.twemoji&&(a(t.twemoji),a(t.wpemoji)))}); 2669//# sourceURL=https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/js/wp-emoji-loader.min.js 2670</script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2670
2670
2671<script id="woo-shortcodes-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-content/themes/canvas/functions/js/shortcodes.js?ver=5.0.0"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2671
2671
2672<script id="jquery-ui-core-js-before"> 2673jQuery.uiBackCompat = true; 2674//# sourceURL=jquery-ui-core-js-before 2675</script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2675
2675
2676<script id="jquery-ui-core-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/ui/core.min.js?ver=1.14.2"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2676
2676
2677<script id="jquery-ui-tabs-js" src="https://sociologicalscience.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/ui/tabs.min.js?ver=1.14.2"></script>
vendor: 1 bytes, line 2677
2677
2678<script> 2679 2680// Instansiate Model 2681var modal = new ModalDialog({ 2682 2683 // Take care changing modal name it affects almost everything: 2684 // all class names, except SVGs, and all data attribute names 2685 modalName : "modal", 2686 2687 openClass : "-open", // is default ("-" + modaName automatically prepended) 2688 lightboxClass : "lightbox", // is default (modaName + "_" automatically prepended) 2689 svgCloseId : "icon-cross", // default 2690 svgCloseClass : "svg-close", // default 2691 svgLoadingId : "icon-loading", // default 2692 svgLoadingClass : "svg-loading" // default 2693 2694 }, window, document, debounce); 2695 2696</script>
2696 2697 2698</body> 2699</html>
Line numbers count LF bytes from the start of the resource, as the search results do. Vendor segments are library code the classifier recognised; they are stored but not indexed. Bytes are shown as Latin1 characters, one per byte.