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147/* Generated with Clay, http://fvisser.nl/clay */</style><link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/tufte-css/latex.css"><link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/tufte-css/tufte.css">
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148  
149<header><h1 class="title">Introduction</h1><p class="subtitle author">Jonathan
150Reeve</p><p class="date"></p></header><main> 
151<details><summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id="TOC" role="doc-toc"><ul>
152<li><a href="#introduction-1">Introduction</a></li>
153<li><a href="#method">Method</a></li>
154<li><a href="#corpus">Corpus</a></li>
155<li><a href="#technologies">Technologies</a>
156<ul>
157<li><a href="#the-text-itself">The text itself</a></li>
158<li><a href="#submodules">Submodules</a></li>
159</ul></li>
160<li><a href="#works-cited">Works Cited</a></li>
161</ul> 
162</nav> 
163</details><p>The central question of this dissertation is one of
164literary history. It’s one of how we get from point A to point B.
165Consider this passage from Jane Austen’s <em>Pride and Prejudice</em> to
166be point A:</p>
167<blockquote>
168<p>At length the Parsonage was discernible. The garden sloping to the
169road, the house standing in it, the green pales and the laurel hedge,
170every thing declared they were arriving. Mr. Collins and Charlotte
171appeared at the door, and the carriage stopped at the small gate, which
172led by a short gravel walk to the house, amidst the nods and smiles of
173the whole party. In a moment they were all out of the chaise, rejoicing
174at the sight of each other. Mrs. Collins welcomed her friend with the
175liveliest pleasure, and Elizabeth was more and more satisfied with
176coming, when she found herself so affectionately received. She saw
177instantly that her cousin’s manners were not altered by his marriage;
178his formal civility was just what it had been, and he detained her some
179minutes at the gate to hear and satisfy his enquiries after all her
180family. They were then, with no other delay than his pointing out the
181neatness of the entrance, taken into the house; and as soon as they were
182in the parlour, he welcomed them a second time with ostentatious
183formality to his humble abode, and punctually repeated all his wife’s
184offers of refreshment.</p>
185</blockquote>
186<p>And this passage from Virginia Woolf’s <em>To the Lighthouse</em> to
187be point B:</p>
188<blockquote>
189<p>The jacmanna was bright violet; the wall staring white. She would not
190have considered it honest to tamper with the bright violet and the
191staring white, since she saw them like that, fashionable though it was,
192since Mr. Paunceforte’s visit, to see everything pale, elegant,
193semitransparent. Then beneath the colour there was the shape. She could
194see it all so clearly, so commandingly, when she looked: it was when she
195took her brush in hand that the whole thing changed. It was in that
196moment’s flight between the picture and her canvas that the demons set
197on her who often brought her to the verge of tears and made this passage
198from conception to work as dreadful as any down a dark passage for a
199child. Such she often felt herself—struggling against terrific odds to
200maintain her courage; to say: “But this is what I see; this is what I
201see,” and so to clasp some miserable remnant of her vision to her
202breast, which a thousand forces did their best to pluck from her.</p>
203</blockquote>
204<p>The Austen passage is one of her most descriptive: full of objects
205and visualities, yet with images that are nonetheless subordinated to
206the narrative.</p>
207<p>In contrast, Woolf’s descriptive passage is thickly indulgent in its
208visuality.</p>
209<p>There is nothing quite as reductive as chronology, it must be
210conceded.</p>
211<p>By juxtaposing two paragraphs as historical artifacts, we are missing
212that A belongs to a certain romance genre, while B belongs to an
213artist-novel genre, in which aesthetic choices and visuality are
214necessarily foregrounded.</p>
215<section id="introduction-1" class="level1">
216<h1>Introduction</h1>
217<p>How were textual images conceived at the turn of the century? What
218properties did they possess, measurable or unmeasurable? In the famous
219preface to his 1897 novella <em>The Nigger of the Narcissus</em>, Joseph
220Conrad announces that his project is, “by the power of the written
221word,” “to make you hear, to make you feel, … before all, to make you
222<em>see</em>. That—and no more, and it is everything.” I will argue that
223he means “seeing” literally: not merely in the metaphorical sense of
224seeing as understanding, but in the physiological sense, of seeing as a
225neuro-ocular process. Conrad explains that his task is to hold up,
226“before all eyes,” a “passing phase of life … to show its vibration, its
227colour, its form, and through its movement, its form, and its colour,
228reveal the substance of its truth” <span class="citation"
229data-cites="conradPortableConrad2007">(Conrad 49)</span>. This
230trinity—color, form, and vibration/movement—is so important to Conrad,
231or so conceptually slippery, that he allows it two iterations, even in
232an essay that stresses the importance of verbal economy. It is tempting
233to read these three words figuratively, to say that “colour,” when
234describing “a passing phase of life” refers to an affective experience,
235rather than a hue, and that “form” refers to a conceptual structure,
236rather than the visual boundaries of physical objects. That would not be
237wrong. In fact, these, and more esoteric readings, are among the most
238typical.<span><label for="sn-0" class="margin-toggle sidenote-number"></label><input type="checkbox" id="sn-0" class="margin-toggle"/><span
239class="sidenote">See, for example cite:@ennsVibrationSoundBirth2013 71.
240Ludwig Schnauder calls this sequence a blend of “the terms and concepts
241of Impressionism with a Victorian insistence on the truthfulness and
242moral sincerity of fiction” <span class="citation"
243data-cites="schnauderFreeWillDeterminism2009">(Schnauder
24498)</span>.<br />
245<br />
246</span></span> But they overlook an equally valuable surface reading:
247that color and form are physiologically distinguishable ocular
248categories, corresponding to the rods and cones of retinal
249photoreceptors, and that they depend on light (vibrations in the visible
250electromagnetic spectrum) and a temporal dimension along which their
251movements may be perceived.</p>
252<p>The eye is more than just an adequate metaphor for the imagination of
253this period’s writers. To understand modernism, one must first
254understand the image, along with its primary interface, and first
255image-processing neural apparatus, the eye. Images are most legible in
256the novels and poems of these writers, as I will show in the
257case-studies of chapters 4 and 5, but these creative works, like
258Conrad’s <em>Narcissus</em>, are almost always accompanied with
259theoretical writings that frame, explicate, contextualize, and market
260them. In addition to introductions like the one above, this theory also
261appears alongside the literary works in their first contexts: “little
262magazines” that published mixtures poems, essays, criticism, chapters of
263novels, and reproductions of visual
264art.<span><label for="sn-1" class="margin-toggle sidenote-number"></label><input type="checkbox" id="sn-1" class="margin-toggle"/><span
265class="sidenote">In Britain, these included <em>The Freewoman</em>
266(1911–13) and <em>The New Freewoman</em> (1913–14), <em>The Egoist</em>
267(1914–19), and <em>The English Review</em> (1908-1937). In the United
268States, influential journals included <em>The Little Review</em>
269(1914–29), <em>The Dial</em> (1880–29), and <em>Poetry</em>
270(1912–).<br />
271<br />
272</span></span> The critical accompaniments in these journals are not
273supplementary, in the Derridean sense of <em>external to</em>, the
274literary works they discuss, but are part of them <span class="citation"
275data-cites="derridaGrammatology2016">(Derrida and Butler 145)</span>.
276This is especially true of poems like <em>The Waste Land</em>, where
277after the first printing, the text has rarely been unadorned with
278Eliot’s own footnotes, but is also true of a wide range of writing at
279this time.</p>
280<p>This period of literary history is so strongly autoexegetic that the
281theories of these writers deserves close examination, even when that
282theory is not consistently practiced. There are frequent and often-cited
283contradictions between the theories of these poet-critics and their
284practice, and yet these theories support a way of understanding and
285manipulating visual language, which not only reveals the centrality of
286vision and the image, but which shows definite and measurable properties
287of those images, leading ultimately to an ocular taxonomy. A study of
288literary images of the turn of the century, then, first requires a look
289at these immediate contexts: the secondary literature written by the
290authors of the primary.</p>
291<p>The critical writings that appear in these journals: reviews, letters
292to the editor, essays, and more, provide the appearance of a complex
293network of discourse that surrounds the literature. Since that network
294is mostly comprised of a small coterie of recurring literary figures,
295some of them disguised with pseudonyms, and most of them friends, their
296publications in these public forums can at times feel staged. It has
297even been argued that the theoretical output of <em>imagisme</em>, the
298literary movement Ezra Pound furiously promoted in the early 1910s, was
299little more than a marketing tactic, or a constructed controversy. So it
300is with skepticism that we must proceed to study the many imagisms of
301this period: impressionism, symbolism, vorticism, and imagism itself,
302all of which, by nature of their visual preoccupations, I label as
303“imagisms.” Instead of highlighting their differences, then, I would
304like to show their similarities: a common understanding of the image
305that transcends movements and manifestos.</p>
306<p>The most vivid theory of image in literature is found in I.A.
307Richards, a literary critic of this period who was influential to the
308school of “new critics.” In his <em>Principles of Literary
309Criticism</em> he diagrams the process of seeing, reading, and
310understanding a literary image, using a distinctly optical framework, as
311shown in fig. 1 <span class="citation"
312data-cites="richards2003principles">(Richards 106)</span>.</p>
313<figure>
314<img src="images/richards.png" id="fig:richards"
315alt="Figure 1: Richards’s Optical Process of Reading" />
316<figcaption aria-hidden="true">Figure 1: Richards’s Optical Process of
317Reading</figcaption>
318</figure>
319<p>
319Richards explains that the six distinct processes depicted vertically
320here correspond to events happening in succession, through which these
321lines cross, as “streams of impulses flowing through in the mind”
322(113):</p>
323<blockquote>
324<div class="line-block">I. The visual sensations of the printed
325words.<br />
326II. Images very closely associated with these sensations.<br />
327III. Images relatively free.<br />
328IV. References to, or ‘thinkings of’, various things.<br />
329V. Emotions.<br />
330VI. Affective-volitional attitudes. (106-7)</div>
331</blockquote>
332<p>Richards’s schematic gives a sense of the complexity of the cognitive
333and emotional processes involved with reading words that bear visual
334significance. Not everyone produces mental images, as the psychological
335works covered in Chapter 1 attest, but images that readers produce are
336amalgamations of memories, emotions, attitudes, and sensations.
337Crucially, they are optic. Consider the resemblance of Richards’s
338diagram to an illustration of retinal nerves, shown in Figure 2.</p>
339<figure>
340<img src="images/optic-nerve.png" id="fig:optic-nerve"
341alt="Figure 2: Source: Rogers, Perception (Rogers)" />
342<figcaption aria-hidden="true">Figure 2: Source: Rogers,
343<em>Perception</em> <span class="citation"
344data-cites="rogersPerceptionVeryShort2017">(Rogers)</span></figcaption>
345</figure>
346<p>Richards, along with the modernists and imagists he studied,
347understood the reading process as a fundamentally visual one, shaped and
348even controlled by the mechanisms of the eye. I hope to show the ways in
349which ocular phenomena may be used to study the history of ideas in this
350period. This relies on a number of binaries, or distinctions these
351theorists make: the static and the dynamic, the fragment and the whole,
352the idea and its expression, the near and the distant, the specific and
353the general, the small and the cosmic, the hard and the soft, and the
354dry and the wet. These are not mutually exclusive categories, as I hope
355will be apparent, but are loci of ambiguities and complexities which
356attracted these writers to them in the first place, as they do us.</p>
357<p>Contemporary criticism has often pointed out these pairs, but almost
358always uses them as a starting place for symptomatic readings: for
359instance, in Peter Nicholls on the implications of “hard” modernism;
360Rachel duPlessis on gendered aspects of the “dry” and “wet” in Pound;
361and Gibson on the “dry” and “hard” as neoclassicist <span
362class="citation"
363data-cites="nichollsHardSoftModernism2013 duplessisPropoundingModernistMaleness2002 gibsonCONTRADICTORYIMAGESCONFLICTING2011a">(Nicholls;
364DuPlessis; GIBSON)</span>. Jesse Schotter admirably problematizes the
365material membranes of the image and writing with his notion of
366“hieroglyphic” modernism, which synthesizes materialities of writing and
367image-making <span class="citation"
368data-cites="schotter2018hieroglyphic">(Schotter)</span>. His notion of
369the hieroglyphic is one that fuses writing and image-production, and is
370present in the many faux-Egyptologies of the early 20th century, as well
371as in Pound’s <em>chinoiseries</em>. For Martin Jay, the modernist
372moment is a “crisis in ocularcentrism” which reflects “a deep-seated
373distrust of the privileging of sight” <span class="citation"
374data-cites="jay88_rise">(Jay 309)</span>. Claudia Olk, as well, argues
375that a break with realism in early 20th century writing shifts
376conceptions of the visual from a representational and “natural” visual
377epistemology, to one a more “conceptual” and less “positivist” one:</p>
378<blockquote>
379<p>“The category of vision is not only central to many modernist texts,
380but also plays a key role in the unfolding paradigm of modernism itself.
381The received sense of a modernist break with realism, its pervasive
382interest in the workings of the individual mind, and its generic
383reclassifications of the novel also intimately affected the role of
384vision, which gained a conceptual rather than natural status. Whereas
385realist texts adhere to a visual language of representation and become
386legible within a positivist epistemology, modernist texts clearly depart
387from this positivist faith.” <span class="citation"
388data-cites="olkVaguenessVisionVeil2007">(Olk 153)</span></p>
389</blockquote>
390<p>Epistemologies of visual perception, then, are a subset of a larger
391discussion surrounding subjectivity in fiction of this period, and in
392particular, literary-historical shifts in the treatment of
393subjectivities. In <em>The Pound Era</em>, Hugh Kenner notes that
394despite Pound’s official stance on Imagism, the movement is nonetheless
395“named for a component of the poem, not a state of the poet, and that
396its three principles establish technical, not psychic, criteria” <span
397class="citation" data-cites="kennerPoundEra1971">(Kenner 179)</span>.
398Literary images are subjective, created in the mind of the reader,
399according to instructions from the poet, yet those instructions must
400pretend to be at least partially objective, or they will not be
401effectively communicated. I hope to unravel here some of these
402contradictions, problematize some of these dichotomies, and extend the
403readings of these critics to include concrete visual properties of the
404images created and manipulated by the writers of this period.</p>
405</section>
406<section id="method" class="level1">
407<h1>Method</h1>
408<p>The method I’m using in this study is one of computational literary
409analysis.</p>
410<ul>
411<li>Not quite yet a field of study</li>
412<li>Cite some of the major works here (Underwood, Jockers, Piper,
413etc.)</li>
414<li>As opposed to Digital Humanities, digital literary studies
415<ul>
416<li>“digital” is more general than “computational”: the latter is more
417action-oriented: information will be computed, rather than simply
418digitized.</li>
419</ul></li>
420</ul>
421</section>
422<section id="corpus" class="level1">
423<h1>Corpus</h1>
424<ul>
425<li>PG</li>
426<li>PG2</li>
427<li>A short history of Project Gutenberg
428<ul>
429<li>Problems of a corpus</li>
430<li>Hand-keyed in most cases</li>
431<li>Distributed proofreaders</li>
432</ul></li>
433</ul>
434</section>
435<section id="technologies" class="level1">
436<h1>Technologies</h1>
437<p>A number of software programs were prepared for this project, written
438in Python, Haskell, and using shell scripting languages.</p>
439<section id="the-text-itself" class="level2">
440<h2>The text itself</h2>
441<p>I made the unconventional decision to produce this dissertation in
442HTML, rather than produce a Microsoft Word document or a PDF file. Since
443Word and PDF were created as proprietary formats, developed by Microsoft
444and Adobe, they were made to sell software, rather than contribute to
445the community. Furthermore, they are made to mimic the paper office,
446using a virtual 8.5 by 11 inch “page.” Since this dissertation will not
447be printed, this constraint is unnecessary. HTML, on the other hand, is
448much more featureful markup language, allowing for interactive charts,
449hyperlinks, variable page width, and much, much more. Since it it
450always-already published on the Internet, it is much more easily
451archivable, readable with a wider variety of reading software (web
452browsers), and provides a more seamless experience for those using
453screen readers or other accessibility software.</p>
454<p>One of the most important features of this HTML format is the
455capability to embed interactive charts. An interactive chart, like</p>
456<p>There is a growing trend of so-called “digital dissertations”</p>
457<ul>
458<li></li>
459</ul>
460<p>This text is originally written in a feature-rich markup language
461called <a href="https://orgmode.org/">Org</a>, which compiles to
462HTML.</p>
463<p>The text of the dissertation text itself contains a number of
464innovations:</p>
465<ul>
466<li>A <a
467href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/dissertation/blob/master/Shakefile.hs">Shakefile</a>
468written in Haskell, for the <a href="https://shakebuild.com/">Shake
469build system</a>, which interfaces with Pandoc to convert plain text
470files to HTML, which I originally wrote in <a
471href="https://orgmode.org/">the org-mode text format</a>.</li>
472<li><a
473href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/dissertation/blob/master/Template.hs">A
474template</a> written in <a
475href="https://chrisdone.com/posts/lucid/">Lucid</a> and <a
476href="http://fvisser.nl/clay/">Clay</a>, Haskell domain-specific
477languages for HTML and CSS, which integrates <a
478href="https://edwardtufte.github.io/tufte-css/">Tufte-CSS</a>, <a
479href="https://mermaid-js.github.io/mermaid/#/">Mermaid</a> diagram
480capability, and more.</li>
481<li>Custom Pandoc filters, written in Haskell: <a
482href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/dissertation/blob/master/templates/hexFilter.hs">one
483for displaying color hex values</a>, used in Chapter 1, and <a
484href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/dissertation/blob/master/templates/synsetFilter.hs">one
485for displaying WordNet synsets</a>, used in Chapter 2.</li>
486</ul>
487<p>This technological stack has been abstracted into the template
488project <a
489href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/template-dissertation">template-dissertation</a>,
490a standards-focused, HTML-first dissertation build system.</p>
491</section>
492<section id="submodules" class="level2">
493<h2>Submodules</h2>
494<ul>
495<li>color-word-analyzer: a CLI program and web app to analyze color in a
496text</li>
497<li>custom-ngrams-search: a framework for searching Google NGrams data
498for custom textual patterns</li>
499<li>count-objects: software for counting objects in literary texts,
500using word sense disambiguation</li>
501<li>description-detection: a program for probabilistically detecting
502literary description</li>
503</ul>
504</section>
505</section>
506<section id="works-cited" class="level1 unnumbered">
507<h1 class="unnumbered">Works Cited</h1>
508<div id="refs" class="references csl-bib-body hanging-indent"
509data-line-spacing="2" role="doc-bibliography">
510<div id="ref-conradPortableConrad2007" class="csl-entry"
511role="doc-biblioentry">
512Conrad, Joseph. <em>The <span>Portable Conrad</span></em>.
513<span>Penguin</span>, 2007.
514</div>
515<div id="ref-derridaGrammatology2016" class="csl-entry"
516role="doc-biblioentry">
517Derrida, Jacques, and Judith Butler. <em>Of
518<span>Grammatology</span></em>. <span>JHU Press</span>, 2016.
519</div>
520<div id="ref-duplessisPropoundingModernistMaleness2002"
521class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
522DuPlessis, Rachel Blau. <span>“Propounding <span>Modernist
523Maleness</span>: <span>How Pound Managed</span> a
524<span>Muse</span>.”</span> <em>Modernism/Modernity</em>, vol. 9, no. 3,
525Sept. 2002, pp. 389–405, doi:<a
526href="https://doi.org/10.1353/mod.2002.0045">10.1353/mod.2002.0045</a>.
527</div>
528<div id="ref-gibsonCONTRADICTORYIMAGESCONFLICTING2011a"
529class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
530GIBSON, MATTHEW. <span>“Contradictory Images: The Conflicting Influences
531of Henri Bergson and William James on t. E. Hulme, and the Consequences
532for Imagism.”</span> <em>The Review of English Studies</em>, vol. 62,
533no. 254, 2011, pp. 275–95, <a
534href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23016466">https://www.jstor.org/stable/23016466</a>.
535</div>
536<div id="ref-jay88_rise" class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
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