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147<style type="text/css">@page { margin: 3cm; @bottom-center { content: counter(page); } }</style></head><body><article> 148 149<header><h1 class="title">Introduction</h1><p class="subtitle author">Jonathan 150Reeve</p><p class="date"></p></header><main> 151<details><summary>Table of Contents</summary><nav id="TOC" role="doc-toc"><ul> 152<li><a href="#introduction-1">Introduction</a></li> 153<li><a href="#method">Method</a></li> 154<li><a href="#corpus">Corpus</a></li> 155<li><a href="#technologies">Technologies</a> 156<ul> 157<li><a href="#the-text-itself">The text itself</a></li> 158<li><a href="#submodules">Submodules</a></li> 159</ul></li> 160<li><a href="#works-cited">Works Cited</a></li> 161</ul> 162</nav> 163</details><p>The central question of this dissertation is one of 164literary history. Itâs one of how we get from point A to point B. 165Consider this passage from Jane Austenâs <em>Pride and Prejudice</em> to 166be point A:</p> 167<blockquote> 168<p>At length the Parsonage was discernible. The garden sloping to the 169road, the house standing in it, the green pales and the laurel hedge, 170every thing declared they were arriving. Mr. Collins and Charlotte 171appeared at the door, and the carriage stopped at the small gate, which 172led by a short gravel walk to the house, amidst the nods and smiles of 173the whole party. In a moment they were all out of the chaise, rejoicing 174at the sight of each other. Mrs. Collins welcomed her friend with the 175liveliest pleasure, and Elizabeth was more and more satisfied with 176coming, when she found herself so affectionately received. She saw 177instantly that her cousinâs manners were not altered by his marriage; 178his formal civility was just what it had been, and he detained her some 179minutes at the gate to hear and satisfy his enquiries after all her 180family. They were then, with no other delay than his pointing out the 181neatness of the entrance, taken into the house; and as soon as they were 182in the parlour, he welcomed them a second time with ostentatious 183formality to his humble abode, and punctually repeated all his wifeâs 184offers of refreshment.</p> 185</blockquote> 186<p>And this passage from Virginia Woolfâs <em>To the Lighthouse</em> to 187be point B:</p> 188<blockquote> 189<p>The jacmanna was bright violet; the wall staring white. She would not 190have considered it honest to tamper with the bright violet and the 191staring white, since she saw them like that, fashionable though it was, 192since Mr. Paunceforteâs visit, to see everything pale, elegant, 193semitransparent. Then beneath the colour there was the shape. She could 194see it all so clearly, so commandingly, when she looked: it was when she 195took her brush in hand that the whole thing changed. It was in that 196momentâs flight between the picture and her canvas that the demons set 197on her who often brought her to the verge of tears and made this passage 198from conception to work as dreadful as any down a dark passage for a 199child. Such she often felt herselfâstruggling against terrific odds to 200maintain her courage; to say: âBut this is what I see; this is what I 201see,â and so to clasp some miserable remnant of her vision to her 202breast, which a thousand forces did their best to pluck from her.</p> 203</blockquote> 204<p>The Austen passage is one of her most descriptive: full of objects 205and visualities, yet with images that are nonetheless subordinated to 206the narrative.</p> 207<p>In contrast, Woolfâs descriptive passage is thickly indulgent in its 208visuality.</p> 209<p>There is nothing quite as reductive as chronology, it must be 210conceded.</p> 211<p>By juxtaposing two paragraphs as historical artifacts, we are missing 212that A belongs to a certain romance genre, while B belongs to an 213artist-novel genre, in which aesthetic choices and visuality are 214necessarily foregrounded.</p> 215<section id="introduction-1" class="level1"> 216<h1>Introduction</h1> 217<p>How were textual images conceived at the turn of the century? What 218properties did they possess, measurable or unmeasurable? In the famous 219preface to his 1897 novella <em>The Nigger of the Narcissus</em>, Joseph 220Conrad announces that his project is, âby the power of the written 221word,â âto make you hear, to make you feel, ⦠before all, to make you 222<em>see</em>. Thatâand no more, and it is everything.â I will argue that 223he means âseeingâ literally: not merely in the metaphorical sense of 224seeing as understanding, but in the physiological sense, of seeing as a 225neuro-ocular process. Conrad explains that his task is to hold up, 226âbefore all eyes,â a âpassing phase of life ⦠to show its vibration, its 227colour, its form, and through its movement, its form, and its colour, 228reveal the substance of its truthâ <span class="citation" 229data-cites="conradPortableConrad2007">(Conrad 49)</span>. This 230trinityâcolor, form, and vibration/movementâis so important to Conrad, 231or so conceptually slippery, that he allows it two iterations, even in
232an essay that stresses the importance of verbal economy. It is tempting 233to read these three words figuratively, to say that âcolour,â when 234describing âa passing phase of lifeâ refers to an affective experience, 235rather than a hue, and that âformâ refers to a conceptual structure, 236rather than the visual boundaries of physical objects. That would not be 237wrong. In fact, these, and more esoteric readings, are among the most 238typical.<span><label for="sn-0" class="margin-toggle sidenote-number"></label><input type="checkbox" id="sn-0" class="margin-toggle"/><span 239class="sidenote">See, for example cite:@ennsVibrationSoundBirth2013 71. 240Ludwig Schnauder calls this sequence a blend of âthe terms and concepts 241of Impressionism with a Victorian insistence on the truthfulness and 242moral sincerity of fictionâ <span class="citation" 243data-cites="schnauderFreeWillDeterminism2009">(Schnauder 24498)</span>.<br /> 245<br /> 246</span></span> But they overlook an equally valuable surface reading: 247that color and form are physiologically distinguishable ocular 248categories, corresponding to the rods and cones of retinal 249photoreceptors, and that they depend on light (vibrations in the visible 250electromagnetic spectrum) and a temporal dimension along which their 251movements may be perceived.</p> 252<p>The eye is more than just an adequate metaphor for the imagination of 253this periodâs writers. To understand modernism, one must first 254understand the image, along with its primary interface, and first 255image-processing neural apparatus, the eye. Images are most legible in 256the novels and poems of these writers, as I will show in the 257case-studies of chapters 4 and 5, but these creative works, like 258Conradâs <em>Narcissus</em>, are almost always accompanied with 259theoretical writings that frame, explicate, contextualize, and market 260them. In addition to introductions like the one above, this theory also 261appears alongside the literary works in their first contexts: âlittle 262magazinesâ that published mixtures poems, essays, criticism, chapters of 263novels, and reproductions of visual 264art.<span><label for="sn-1" class="margin-toggle sidenote-number"></label><input type="checkbox" id="sn-1" class="margin-toggle"/><span 265class="sidenote">In Britain, these included <em>The Freewoman</em> 266(1911â13) and <em>The New Freewoman</em> (1913â14), <em>The Egoist</em> 267(1914â19), and <em>The English Review</em> (1908-1937). In the United 268States, influential journals included <em>The Little Review</em> 269(1914â29), <em>The Dial</em> (1880â29), and <em>Poetry</em> 270(1912â).<br /> 271<br /> 272</span></span> The critical accompaniments in these journals are not 273supplementary, in the Derridean sense of <em>external to</em>, the 274literary works they discuss, but are part of them <span class="citation" 275data-cites="derridaGrammatology2016">(Derrida and Butler 145)</span>. 276This is especially true of poems like <em>The Waste Land</em>, where 277after the first printing, the text has rarely been unadorned with 278Eliotâs own footnotes, but is also true of a wide range of writing at 279this time.</p> 280<p>This period of literary history is so strongly autoexegetic that the 281theories of these writers deserves close examination, even when that 282theory is not consistently practiced. There are frequent and often-cited 283contradictions between the theories of these poet-critics and their 284practice, and yet these theories support a way of understanding and 285manipulating visual language, which not only reveals the centrality of 286vision and the image, but which shows definite and measurable properties 287of those images, leading ultimately to an ocular taxonomy. A study of 288literary images of the turn of the century, then, first requires a look 289at these immediate contexts: the secondary literature written by the 290authors of the primary.</p> 291<p>The critical writings that appear in these journals: reviews, letters 292to the editor, essays, and more, provide the appearance of a complex 293network of discourse that surrounds the literature. Since that network 294is mostly comprised of a small coterie of recurring literary figures, 295some of them disguised with pseudonyms, and most of them friends, their 296publications in these public forums can at times feel staged. It has 297even been argued that the theoretical output of <em>imagisme</em>, the 298literary movement Ezra Pound furiously promoted in the early 1910s, was 299little more than a marketing tactic, or a constructed controversy. So it 300is with skepticism that we must proceed to study the many imagisms of 301this period: impressionism, symbolism, vorticism, and imagism itself, 302all of which, by nature of their visual preoccupations, I label as 303âimagisms.â Instead of highlighting their differences, then, I would 304like to show their similarities: a common understanding of the image 305that transcends movements and manifestos.</p> 306<p>The most vivid theory of image in literature is found in I.A. 307Richards, a literary critic of this period who was influential to the 308school of ânew critics.â In his <em>Principles of Literary 309Criticism</em> he diagrams the process of seeing, reading, and 310understanding a literary image, using a distinctly optical framework, as 311shown in fig. 1 <span class="citation" 312data-cites="richards2003principles">(Richards 106)</span>.</p> 313<figure> 314<img src="images/richards.png" id="fig:richards" 315alt="Figure 1: Richardsâs Optical Process of Reading" /> 316<figcaption aria-hidden="true">Figure 1: Richardsâs Optical Process of 317Reading</figcaption> 318</figure> 319<p>
319Richards explains that the six distinct processes depicted vertically 320here correspond to events happening in succession, through which these 321lines cross, as âstreams of impulses flowing through in the mindâ 322(113):</p> 323<blockquote> 324<div class="line-block">I. The visual sensations of the printed 325words.<br /> 326II. Images very closely associated with these sensations.<br /> 327III. Images relatively free.<br /> 328IV. References to, or âthinkings ofâ, various things.<br /> 329V. Emotions.<br /> 330VI. Affective-volitional attitudes. (106-7)</div> 331</blockquote> 332<p>Richardsâs schematic gives a sense of the complexity of the cognitive 333and emotional processes involved with reading words that bear visual 334significance. Not everyone produces mental images, as the psychological 335works covered in Chapter 1 attest, but images that readers produce are 336amalgamations of memories, emotions, attitudes, and sensations. 337Crucially, they are optic. Consider the resemblance of Richardsâs 338diagram to an illustration of retinal nerves, shown in Figure 2.</p> 339<figure> 340<img src="images/optic-nerve.png" id="fig:optic-nerve" 341alt="Figure 2: Source: Rogers, Perception (Rogers)" /> 342<figcaption aria-hidden="true">Figure 2: Source: Rogers, 343<em>Perception</em> <span class="citation" 344data-cites="rogersPerceptionVeryShort2017">(Rogers)</span></figcaption> 345</figure> 346<p>Richards, along with the modernists and imagists he studied, 347understood the reading process as a fundamentally visual one, shaped and 348even controlled by the mechanisms of the eye. I hope to show the ways in 349which ocular phenomena may be used to study the history of ideas in this 350period. This relies on a number of binaries, or distinctions these 351theorists make: the static and the dynamic, the fragment and the whole, 352the idea and its expression, the near and the distant, the specific and 353the general, the small and the cosmic, the hard and the soft, and the 354dry and the wet. These are not mutually exclusive categories, as I hope 355will be apparent, but are loci of ambiguities and complexities which 356attracted these writers to them in the first place, as they do us.</p> 357<p>Contemporary criticism has often pointed out these pairs, but almost 358always uses them as a starting place for symptomatic readings: for 359instance, in Peter Nicholls on the implications of âhardâ modernism; 360Rachel duPlessis on gendered aspects of the âdryâ and âwetâ in Pound; 361and Gibson on the âdryâ and âhardâ as neoclassicist <span 362class="citation" 363data-cites="nichollsHardSoftModernism2013 duplessisPropoundingModernistMaleness2002 gibsonCONTRADICTORYIMAGESCONFLICTING2011a">(Nicholls; 364DuPlessis; GIBSON)</span>. Jesse Schotter admirably problematizes the 365material membranes of the image and writing with his notion of 366âhieroglyphicâ modernism, which synthesizes materialities of writing and 367image-making <span class="citation" 368data-cites="schotter2018hieroglyphic">(Schotter)</span>. His notion of 369the hieroglyphic is one that fuses writing and image-production, and is 370present in the many faux-Egyptologies of the early 20th century, as well 371as in Poundâs <em>chinoiseries</em>. For Martin Jay, the modernist 372moment is a âcrisis in ocularcentrismâ which reflects âa deep-seated 373distrust of the privileging of sightâ <span class="citation" 374data-cites="jay88_rise">(Jay 309)</span>. Claudia Olk, as well, argues 375that a break with realism in early 20th century writing shifts 376conceptions of the visual from a representational and ânaturalâ visual 377epistemology, to one a more âconceptualâ and less âpositivistâ one:</p> 378<blockquote> 379<p>âThe category of vision is not only central to many modernist texts, 380but also plays a key role in the unfolding paradigm of modernism itself. 381The received sense of a modernist break with realism, its pervasive 382interest in the workings of the individual mind, and its generic 383reclassifications of the novel also intimately affected the role of 384vision, which gained a conceptual rather than natural status. Whereas 385realist texts adhere to a visual language of representation and become 386legible within a positivist epistemology, modernist texts clearly depart 387from this positivist faith.â <span class="citation" 388data-cites="olkVaguenessVisionVeil2007">(Olk 153)</span></p> 389</blockquote> 390<p>Epistemologies of visual perception, then, are a subset of a larger 391discussion surrounding subjectivity in fiction of this period, and in 392particular, literary-historical shifts in the treatment of 393subjectivities. In <em>The Pound Era</em>, Hugh Kenner notes that 394despite Poundâs official stance on Imagism, the movement is nonetheless 395ânamed for a component of the poem, not a state of the poet, and that 396its three principles establish technical, not psychic, criteriaâ <span 397class="citation" data-cites="kennerPoundEra1971">(Kenner 179)</span>. 398Literary images are subjective, created in the mind of the reader, 399according to instructions from the poet, yet those instructions must 400pretend to be at least partially objective, or they will not be 401effectively communicated. I hope to unravel here some of these 402contradictions, problematize some of these dichotomies, and extend the 403readings of these critics to include concrete visual properties of the 404images created and manipulated by the writers of this period.</p> 405</section> 406<section id="method" class="level1"> 407<h1>Method</h1> 408<p>The method Iâm using in this study is one of computational literary 409analysis.</p> 410<ul> 411<li>Not quite yet a field of study</li> 412<li>Cite some of the major works here (Underwood, Jockers, Piper, 413etc.)</li> 414<li>As opposed to Digital Humanities, digital literary studies 415<ul> 416<li>âdigitalâ is more general than âcomputationalâ: the latter is more 417action-oriented: information will be computed, rather than simply 418digitized.</li> 419</ul></li> 420</ul> 421</section> 422<section id="corpus" class="level1"> 423<h1>Corpus</h1> 424<ul> 425<li>PG</li> 426<li>PG2</li> 427<li>A short history of Project Gutenberg 428<ul> 429<li>Problems of a corpus</li> 430<li>Hand-keyed in most cases</li> 431<li>Distributed proofreaders</li> 432</ul></li> 433</ul> 434</section> 435<section id="technologies" class="level1"> 436<h1>Technologies</h1> 437<p>A number of software programs were prepared for this project, written 438in Python, Haskell, and using shell scripting languages.</p> 439<section id="the-text-itself" class="level2"> 440<h2>The text itself</h2> 441<p>I made the unconventional decision to produce this dissertation in 442HTML, rather than produce a Microsoft Word document or a PDF file. Since 443Word and PDF were created as proprietary formats, developed by Microsoft 444and Adobe, they were made to sell software, rather than contribute to 445the community. Furthermore, they are made to mimic the paper office, 446using a virtual 8.5 by 11 inch âpage.â Since this dissertation will not 447be printed, this constraint is unnecessary. HTML, on the other hand, is 448much more featureful markup language, allowing for interactive charts, 449hyperlinks, variable page width, and much, much more. Since it it 450always-already published on the Internet, it is much more easily 451archivable, readable with a wider variety of reading software (web 452browsers), and provides a more seamless experience for those using 453screen readers or other accessibility software.</p> 454<p>One of the most important features of this HTML format is the 455capability to embed interactive charts. An interactive chart, like</p> 456<p>There is a growing trend of so-called âdigital dissertationsâ</p> 457<ul> 458<li></li> 459</ul> 460<p>This text is originally written in a feature-rich markup language 461called <a href="https://orgmode.org/">Org</a>, which compiles to 462HTML.</p> 463<p>The text of the dissertation text itself contains a number of 464innovations:</p> 465<ul> 466<li>A <a 467href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/dissertation/blob/master/Shakefile.hs">Shakefile</a> 468written in Haskell, for the <a href="https://shakebuild.com/">Shake 469build system</a>, which interfaces with Pandoc to convert plain text 470files to HTML, which I originally wrote in <a 471href="https://orgmode.org/">the org-mode text format</a>.</li> 472<li><a 473href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/dissertation/blob/master/Template.hs">A 474template</a> written in <a 475href="https://chrisdone.com/posts/lucid/">Lucid</a> and <a 476href="http://fvisser.nl/clay/">Clay</a>, Haskell domain-specific 477languages for HTML and CSS, which integrates <a 478href="https://edwardtufte.github.io/tufte-css/">Tufte-CSS</a>, <a 479href="https://mermaid-js.github.io/mermaid/#/">Mermaid</a> diagram 480capability, and more.</li> 481<li>Custom Pandoc filters, written in Haskell: <a 482href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/dissertation/blob/master/templates/hexFilter.hs">one 483for displaying color hex values</a>, used in Chapter 1, and <a 484href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/dissertation/blob/master/templates/synsetFilter.hs">one 485for displaying WordNet synsets</a>, used in Chapter 2.</li> 486</ul> 487<p>This technological stack has been abstracted into the template 488project <a 489href="https://github.com/JonathanReeve/template-dissertation">template-dissertation</a>, 490a standards-focused, HTML-first dissertation build system.</p> 491</section> 492<section id="submodules" class="level2"> 493<h2>Submodules</h2> 494<ul> 495<li>color-word-analyzer: a CLI program and web app to analyze color in a 496text</li> 497<li>custom-ngrams-search: a framework for searching Google NGrams data 498for custom textual patterns</li> 499<li>count-objects: software for counting objects in literary texts, 500using word sense disambiguation</li> 501<li>description-detection: a program for probabilistically detecting 502literary description</li> 503</ul> 504</section> 505</section> 506<section id="works-cited" class="level1 unnumbered"> 507<h1 class="unnumbered">Works Cited</h1> 508<div id="refs" class="references csl-bib-body hanging-indent"
509data-line-spacing="2" role="doc-bibliography"> 510<div id="ref-conradPortableConrad2007" class="csl-entry" 511role="doc-biblioentry"> 512Conrad, Joseph. <em>The <span>Portable Conrad</span></em>. 513<span>Penguin</span>, 2007. 514</div> 515<div id="ref-derridaGrammatology2016" class="csl-entry" 516role="doc-biblioentry"> 517Derrida, Jacques, and Judith Butler. <em>Of 518<span>Grammatology</span></em>. <span>JHU Press</span>, 2016. 519</div> 520<div id="ref-duplessisPropoundingModernistMaleness2002" 521class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry"> 522DuPlessis, Rachel Blau. <span>âPropounding <span>Modernist 523Maleness</span>: <span>How Pound Managed</span> a 524<span>Muse</span>.â</span> <em>Modernism/Modernity</em>, vol. 9, no. 3, 525Sept. 2002, pp. 389â405, doi:<a 526href="https://doi.org/10.1353/mod.2002.0045">10.1353/mod.2002.0045</a>. 527</div> 528<div id="ref-gibsonCONTRADICTORYIMAGESCONFLICTING2011a" 529class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry"> 530GIBSON, MATTHEW. <span>âContradictory Images: The Conflicting Influences 531of Henri Bergson and William James on t. E. Hulme, and the Consequences 532for Imagism.â</span> <em>The Review of English Studies</em>, vol. 62, 533no. 254, 2011, pp. 275â95, <a 534href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23016466">https://www.jstor.org/stable/23016466</a>. 535</div> 536<div id="ref-jay88_rise" class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry"> 537Jay, Martin. <span>âThe Rise of Hermeneutics and the Crisis of 538Ocularcentrism.â</span> <em>Poetics Today</em>, vol. 9, no. 2, 1988, p. 539307, doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1772691">10.2307/1772691</a>. 540</div> 541<div id="ref-kennerPoundEra1971" class="csl-entry" 542role="doc-biblioentry"> 543Kenner, Hugh. <em>The <span>Pound</span> Era</em>. <span>University of 544California Press</span>, 1971. 545</div> 546<div id="ref-nichollsHardSoftModernism2013" class="csl-entry" 547role="doc-biblioentry"> 548Nicholls, Peter. <span>âHard and <span>Soft Modernism</span>.â</span> 549<em>A <span>Handbook</span> of <span>Modernism Studies</span></em>, 550<span>Wiley-Blackwell</span>, 2013. 551</div> 552<div id="ref-olkVaguenessVisionVeil2007" class="csl-entry" 553role="doc-biblioentry"> 554Olk, Claudia. <span>âVagueness, <span>Vision</span>, and the 555<span>Veil</span>: <span>Perceptual Indeterminacy</span> in 556<span>Modernist Fiction</span>.â</span> <em>Visual <span>Culture 557Revisited</span>: <span>German</span> and <span>American 558Perspectives</span> on <span>Visual Culture</span>(s)</em>, 559<span>Herbert von Halem Verlag</span>, 2007, <a 560href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=YZoJRCsePY0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA153">https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=YZoJRCsePY0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA153</a>. 561</div> 562<div id="ref-richards2003principles" class="csl-entry" 563role="doc-biblioentry"> 564Richards, I. A. <em>Principles of <span>Literary Criticism</span></em>. 565<span>Taylor & Francis</span>, 2003, <a 566href="https://books.google.com/books?id=keuCAgAAQBAJ">https://books.google.com/books?id=keuCAgAAQBAJ</a>. 567</div> 568<div id="ref-rogersPerceptionVeryShort2017" class="csl-entry" 569role="doc-biblioentry"> 570Rogers, Brian J. <em>Perception: <span>A Very Short 571Introduction</span></em>. <span>Oxford University Press</span>, 2017. 572</div> 573<div id="ref-schnauderFreeWillDeterminism2009" class="csl-entry" 574role="doc-biblioentry"> 575Schnauder, Ludwig. <em>Free <span>Will</span> and 576<span>Determinism</span> in <span>Joseph Conrad</span>âs <span>Major 577Novels</span></em>. <span>Rodopi</span>, 2009. 578</div> 579<div id="ref-schotter2018hieroglyphic" class="csl-entry" 580role="doc-biblioentry"> 581Schotter, J. <em>Hieroglyphic <span>Modernisms</span>: 582<span>Writing</span> and <span>New Media</span> in the <span>Twentieth 583Century</span></em>. <span>Edinburgh University Press</span>, 2018, <a 584href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e398DwAAQBAJ">https://books.google.com/books?id=e398DwAAQBAJ</a>. 585</div> 586</div> 587</section> 588 589</main></article><footer>
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