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1</head><body><div class=regular-header><header><div class=website-header><div class=logo><a href=/><img src=/img/Utilitarianism-Website-Logo.svg alt="Utilitarianism.net website logo"></a></div><nav role=navigation class=high-z-index><div class="dropdown header-navigation-item nudge-down"><a href=/textbook class=large-hit-box>Learn about Utilitarianism</a><div class="table-of-contents dropdown-content"><ol><li><a href=/introduction-to-utilitarianism/ title>Introduction to Utilitarianism</a></li><li><a href=/types-of-utilitarianism/ title>Elements and Types of Utilitarianism</a></li><li><a href=/arguments-for-utilitarianism/ title>Arguments for Utilitarianism</a></li><li><a href=/theories-of-well-being/ title>Theories of Well-Being</a></li><li><a href=/population-ethics/ title>Population Ethics</a></li><li><a href=/utilitarianism-and-practical-ethics/ title>Utilitarianism and Practical Ethics</a></li><li><a href=/near-utilitarian-alternatives/ title>Near-Utilitarian Alternatives</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/ title>Objections to Utilitarianism and Responses</a></li><li><a href=/resources-and-further-reading/ title>Resources and Further Reading</a></li></ol></div></div><div class="header-navigation-item nudge-down"><a href=/acting-on-utilitarianism class=large-hit-box>Acting on Utilitarianism</a></div><div class="dropdown header-navigation-item nudge-down"><a href=/guest-essays class=large-hit-box>Guest Essays</a><div class="table-of-contents dropdown-content content-wide"><ul><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-climate-change/ title><li><div class=title>Utilitarianism and Climate Change</div><span class=author>John Broome</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-nonhuman-animals/ title><li><div class=title>Utilitarianism and Nonhuman Animals</div><span class=author>Jeff Sebo</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/moral-psychology/ title><li><div class=title>Moral Psychology and Utilitarianism</div><span class=author>Lucius Caviola & Joshua Greene</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/virtues-for-real-world-utilitarians/ title><li><div class=title>Virtues for Real-World Utilitarians</div><span class=author>Stefan Schubert & Lucius Caviola</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/time-relative-account-of-interests/ title><li><div class=title>The Time-Relative Account of Interests</div><span class=author>Jeff McMahan</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-research-ethics/ title><li><div class=title>Utilitarianism and Research Ethics</div><span class=author>Nir Eyal</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarian-political-philosophy/ title><li><div class=title>Utilitarian Political Philosophy</div><span class=author>Marcus Schultz-Bergin</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/uncertainty-and-utilitarianism/ title><li><div class=title>Uncertainty and Utilitarianism</div><span class=author>Krister Bykvist</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/buddhism-and-utilitarianism/ title><li><div class=title>Buddhism and Utilitarianism</div><span class=author>Calvin Baker</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-voting/ title><li><div class=title>Utilitarianism and Voting</div><span class=author>Zach Barnett</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/expected-utility-maximization/ title><li><div class=title>Expected Utility Maximization</div><span class=author>Joe Carlsmith & Vikram Balasubramanian</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/expected-value-fanaticism/ title><li><div class=title>Expected Value Fanaticism</div><span class=author>Petra Kosonen</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/harsanyi-utilitarian-theorems/ title><li><div class=title>Harsanyi’s Utilitarian Theorems without Tears</div><span class=author>Johan E. Gustafsson & Kacper Kowalczyk</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-business-ethics/ title><li><div class=title>Utilitarianism and Business Ethics</div><span class=author>Brian Berkey</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/welfare-economics/ title><li><div class=title>Welfare Economics and Interpersonal Utility Comparisons</div><span class=author>Yew-Kwang Ng</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/naturalistic-arguments-for-ethical-hedonism/ title><li><div class=title>Naturalistic Arguments for Ethical Hedonism</div><span class=author>Neil Sinhababu</span></li></a><a href=/guest-essays/precis-of-the-feeling-of-value/ title><li><div class=title>Analytic Hedonism and Observable Moral Facts</div><span class=author>Sharon Hewitt Rawlette</span></li></a>
1<a href=/guest-essays/bentham-and-criminal-law/ title><li><div class=title>Bentham and Criminal Law</div><span class=author>Steven Sverdlik</span></li></a></ul></div></div></nav></div><div class="website-header website-header-2"><div class="site-navigation-header sub-header"><div class=header-navigation-item><a href=/about>About Us</a></div><div class=header-navigation-item><a href=/utilitarian-thinkers>Utilitarian Thinkers</a></div><div class=header-navigation-item><a href=/utilitarian-quotes>Utilitarian Quotes</a></div><div class=header-navigation-item><a href=/glossary>Glossary</a></div><div class=header-navigation-item><a href=/books>Books</a></div><div class="dropdown header-navigation-item"><span class=no-pointer>Study guides</span><div class="table-of-contents dropdown-content nudge-up"><ul><a href=/peter-singer-famine-affluence-and-morality/ title><li>Peter Singer's Famine, Affluence, and Morality</li></a><a href=/peter-singer-animal-liberation/ title><li>Peter Singer's Animal Liberation: All Animals are Equal</li></a><a href=/utilitarianism-for-high-school-students/ title><li>Utilitarianism: Simply Explained</li></a></ul></div></div></div></div><div id=search-hack><div id=search></div></div></header></div><div class=mobile-header><header><div class=logo><a href=/><img src=/img/Utilitarianism-Website-Logo.svg alt="Utilitarianism.net website logo"></a></div><input id=nav type=checkbox>
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2<main data-pagefind-body role=main><div class=book-header style="background:#0c3b5b;background:linear-gradient(180deg,#0c3b5b 0%,#236d9f 100%)"><h1 class=title data-pagefind-meta=title>An Introduction to Utilitarianism</h1><span class=subtitle>From Theory to Practice</span>
3<span class=author>Richard Yetter Chappell, Darius Meissner, and William MacAskill</span>
4<span class=year></span></div><div class=article-body><div class=homepage-center style=position:relative><div class="books books-hack"><div class=book-nudge><div class=book><div class=book-overlay></div><a href=https://hackettpublishing.com/introduction-to-utilitarianism><span class=clickable></span></a>
5<img src=/img/books/utilitarianism.svg alt="An Introduction to Utilitarianism (2024)" title="An Introduction to Utilitarianism (2024)"></div></div><p>This <strong>peer-reviewed, open-access textbook</strong> introduces modern utilitarianism in a concise and engaging way, making it both accessible for undergraduates and informative for advanced readers.<sup id=fnref:1><a href=#fn:1 class=footnote-ref role=doc-noteref>1</a></sup> It avoids philosophical jargon where possible and provides definitions where necessary.</p><p>The 2024 print edition of this textbook is <a href=https://hackettpublishing.com/introduction-to-utilitarianism>available from Hackett Publishing</a>, featuring all the core textbook chapters from this website.</p></div></div><div class="guest-essay-container textbook-chapters-descriptions"><a href=/introduction-to-utilitarianism/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#0c3b5b 0%,#236d9f 100%)"><span>1</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>Introduction to Utilitarianism</h2><p>This chapter introduces utilitarianism, and its major costs and benefits as a moral theory.</p></div></div></a><a href=/types-of-utilitarianism/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#236d9f 0%,#012147 100%)"><span>2</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>Elements and Types of Utilitarianism</h2><p>After defining utilitarianism, this chapter offers a detailed analysis of its four key elements (consequentialism, welfarism, impartiality, and aggregationism). It explains the difference between maximizing, satisficing, and scalar utilitarianism, and other important distinctions between utilitarian theories.</p></div></div></a><a href=/arguments-for-utilitarianism/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#012147 0%,#084BC7 100%)"><span>3</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>Arguments for Utilitarianism</h2><p>This chapter explains reflective equilibrium as a moral methodology, and presents several arguments for utilitarianism over non-consequentialist approaches to ethics.</p></div></div></a><a href=/theories-of-well-being/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#084BC7 0%,#1B7CCC 100%)"><span>4</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>Theories of Well-Being</h2><p>Explores the three major theories of well-being, or what makes a life good for the individual living it: hedonism, desire theory, and objective list theory.</p></div></div></a><a href=/population-ethics/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#1B7CCC 0%,#089FD1 100%)"><span>5</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>Population Ethics</h2><p>Population ethics tackles questions like how we should weigh new lives against existing lives, and how we should balance quantity and quality of life (when comparing different-sized populations). This chapter critically surveys five major approaches to population ethics: the total view, the average view, variable value theories, critical level (and critical range) theories, and person-affecting views.</p></div></div></a><a href=/utilitarianism-and-practical-ethics/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#089FD1 0%,#305D9C 100%)"><span>6</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>Utilitarianism and Practical Ethics</h2><p>Utilitarianism has important implications for how we should think about leading an ethical life. Despite giving no intrinsic weight to deontic constraints, it supports many commonsense prohibitions and virtues in practice. Its main practical difference instead lies in its emphasis on positively doing good, in more expansive and efficie
5nt ways than people typically prioritize.</p></div></div></a><a href=/near-utilitarian-alternatives/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#305D9C 0%,#1F2A70 100%)"><span>7</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>Near-Utilitarian Alternatives</h2><p>There are several ways to reject aspects of utilitarianism while remaining on board with the general thrust of the theory (at least in practice). This chapter explores a range of such near-utilitarian views, to demonstrate the robustness of utilitarianism's practical recommendations. Even if you think the theory is technically false, you may nonetheless have good grounds to largely agree with its practical verdicts.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#1F2A70 0%,#1F1E70 100%)"><span>8</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>Objections to Utilitarianism and Responses</h2><p>This chapter presents a toolkit of general strategies for responding to objections to utilitarianism, before introducing the most influential specific objections to the theory.</p></div></div></a><div class=objections><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/rights/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#1F1E70 0%,#371E87 100%)"><span>1</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Rights Objection</h2><p>Many find it objectionable that utilitarianism seemingly licenses outrageous rights violations in certain hypothetical scenarios, killing innocent people for the greater good. This article explores how utilitarians might best respond.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/mere-means/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#371E87 0%,#571B9E 100%)"><span>2</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Mere Means Objection</h2><p>Critics often allege that utilitarianism objectionably instrumentalizes people—treating us as mere means to the greater good, rather than properly valuing individuals as ends in themselves. In this article, we assess whether this is a fair objection.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/separateness-of-persons/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#571B9E 0%,#430A4A 100%)"><span>3</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Separateness of Persons Objection</h2><p>The idea that utilitarianism neglects the 'separateness of persons' has proven to be a widely influential objection. But it is one that is difficult to pin down. This article explores three candidate interpretations of the objection, and how utilitarians can respond to each.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/demandingness/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#430A4A 0%,#5F3091 100%)"><span>4</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Demandingness Objection</h2><p>In directing us to choose the impartially best outcome, even at significant cost to ourselves, utilitarianism can seem an incredibly demanding theory. This page explores whether this feature of utilitarianism is objectionable, and if so, how defenders of the view might best respond.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/alienation/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#5F3091 0%,#822FA8 100%)"><span>5</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Alienation Objection</h2><p>Abstract moral theories threaten to alienate us from much that we hold dear. This article explores two possible defenses of utilitarianism against this charge. One recommends adopting motivations other than explicitly utilitarian ones. The second argues that suitably concrete concerns can be subsumed within broader utilitarian motivations.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/special-obligations/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#822FA8 0%,#531694 100%)"><span>6</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Special Obligations Objection</h2><p>Relationships like parenthood or guardianship seemingly give rise to special obligations to protect those who fall under our care (where these obligations are more stringent than our general duties of beneficence towards strangers). This article explores the extent to which impartial utilitarianism can accommodate intuitions and normative practices of partiality.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/equality/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#531694 0%,#260380 100%)"><span>7</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Equality Objection</h2><p>Utilitarianism is concerned with the overall well-being of individuals in the population, but many object that justice requires an additional concern for how this well-being is distributed across individuals. This article examines this objection, and how utilitarians might best respond.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/cluelessness/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#260380 0%,#6F4BC9 100%)"><span>8</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Cluelessness Objection</h2><p>Is utilitarianism undermined by our inability to predict the long-term consequences of our actions? This article explores whether utilitarians can still be guided by near-term expected value even when this is small in comparison to the potential value or disvalue of the unknown long-term consequences.</p></div></div></a><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/abusability/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#6F4BC9 0%,#57579d 100%)"><span>9</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>The Abusability Objection</h2><p>Some argue that utilitarianism is self-effacing, or recommends against its own acceptance, due to the risk that mistaken appeals to the 'greater good' may actually result in horrifically harmful actions being done. This article explores how best to guard against such risks, and questions whether it is an objection to a theory if it turns out to be self-effacing in this way.</p></div></div></a></div><a href=/resources-and-further-reading/><div class=guest-essay><div class=square style="background:linear-gradient(180deg,#57579d 0%,#012147 100%)"><span>9</span></div><div class=title-and-description><h2>
5Resources and Further Reading</h2><p>Resources and further reading about utilitarianism.</p></div></div></a></div><div class=footnotes role=doc-endnotes><hr><ol><li id=fn:1><p>For a high-school level introduction, see <a href=/utilitarianism-for-high-school-students/>Utilitarianism: Simply Explained</a>.&#160;<a href=#fnref:1 class=footnote-backref role=doc-backlink>&#8617;&#xfe0e;</a></p></li></ol></div></div></main><footer class=site-footer role=contentinfo><div class=footer-navigation><div class=temp-navigation-hack><span class=footer-heading>Core Articles</span><ol class=small-left-padding><li><a href=/introduction-to-utilitarianism/>Introduction to Utilitarianism</a></li><li><a href=/types-of-utilitarianism/>Elements and Types of Utilitarianism</a></li><li><a href=/arguments-for-utilitarianism/>Arguments for Utilitarianism</a></li><li><a href=/theories-of-well-being/>Theories of Well-Being</a></li><li><a href=/population-ethics/>Population Ethics</a></li><li><a href=/utilitarianism-and-practical-ethics/>Utilitarianism and Practical Ethics</a></li><li><a href=/near-utilitarian-alternatives/>Near-Utilitarian Alternatives</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/>Objections to Utilitarianism and Responses</a><ul><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/rights/>The Rights Objection</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/mere-means/>The Mere Means Objection</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/separateness-of-persons/>The Separateness of Persons Objection</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/demandingness/>The Demandingness Objection</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/alienation/>The Alienation Objection</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/special-obligations/>The Special Obligations Objection</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/equality/>The Equality Objection</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/cluelessness/>The Cluelessness Objection</a></li><li><a href=/objections-to-utilitarianism/abusability/>The Abusability Objection</a></li></ul></li><li><a href=/resources-and-further-reading/>Resources and Further Reading</a></li></ol><span class="footer-heading large-gap">Study Guides</span>
6<a href=/peter-singer-famine-affluence-and-morality>Peter Singer’s <em>Famine, Affluence, and Morality</em></a>
7<a href=/peter-singer-animal-liberation>Peter Singer’s <em>Animal Liberation: All Animals are Equal</em></a>
8<a href=/utilitarianism-for-high-school-students>Utilitarianism: Simply Explained</a>
9<span class="footer-heading large-gap">Podcast</span>
10<a href=https://feeds.type3.audio/utilitarianism-net.rss>Podcast of this textbook</a></div><div class=temp-navigation-hack><span class=footer-heading>Other Content</span>
11<a href=/acting-on-utilitarianism>Acting on Utilitarianism</a>
12<a href=/utilitarian-quotes>Utilitarian Quotes</a>
13<a href=/utilitarian-thinkers>Utilitarian Thinkers</a>
14<a href=/glossary>Utilitarian Glossary</a>
15<a href=/books>Utilitarian Books</a>
16<a href=/about>About Us</a>
17<span class="footer-heading large-gap">Guest Essays</span>
18<a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-climate-change/>Utilitarianism and Climate Change
19</a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-nonhuman-animals/>Utilitarianism and Nonhuman Animals
20</a><a href=/guest-essays/moral-psychology/>Moral Psychology and Utilitarianism
21</a><a href=/guest-essays/virtues-for-real-world-utilitarians/>Virtues for Real-World Utilitarians
22</a><a href=/guest-essays/time-relative-account-of-interests/>The Time-Relative Account of Interests
23</a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-research-ethics/>Utilitarianism and Research Ethics
24</a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarian-political-philosophy/>Utilitarian Political Philosophy
25</a><a href=/guest-essays/uncertainty-and-utilitarianism/>Uncertainty and Utilitarianism
26</a><a href=/guest-essays/buddhism-and-utilitarianism/>Buddhism and Utilitarianism
27</a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-voting/>Utilitarianism and Voting
28</a><a href=/guest-essays/expected-utility-maximization/>Expected Utility Maximization
29</a><a href=/guest-essays/expected-value-fanaticism/>Expected Value Fanaticism
30</a><a href=/guest-essays/harsanyi-utilitarian-theorems/>Harsanyi’s Utilitarian Theorems without Tears
31</a><a href=/guest-essays/utilitarianism-and-business-ethics/>Utilitarianism and Business Ethics
32</a><a href=/guest-essays/welfare-economics/>Welfare Economics and Interpersonal Utility Comparisons
33</a><a href=/guest-essays/naturalistic-arguments-for-ethical-hedonism/>Naturalistic Arguments for Ethical Hedonism
34</a><a href=/guest-essays/precis-of-the-feeling-of-value/>Analytic Hedonism and Observable Moral Facts
35</a>
35<a href=/guest-essays/bentham-and-criminal-law/>Bentham and Criminal Law
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