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13<p class="ac pt16"><strong>Introduction</strong></p>
14<p class="ac">by Richard L. Dieterle</p>
15<hr>
16<p class="aj"><strong>&quot;But if we don't nurture this knowledge and teach others like this it's going to go down the 'hollow of echoes,' the <em>hojarara.</em> In the end it's going to disappear and no one will hear it.&quot;</strong><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031031"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
17<hr>
18<p class="aj">The Winnebago, or Hocągara (ho CHUHN g(a)rah) as they call themselves, are a North American Indian nation of <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor30642188">Chiwere</a> Siouan speech. In their heyday they were powerful and warlike. <a name="anchor10041035" id="anchor10041035"></a>As Evans observed in 1818, &quot;The <a href="#anchor81936250">Puans</a> [Hocągara] too, were not less formidable and fierce than the Iroquois.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031032"><sup>2</sup></a> <img width="254" height="304" src="Maps/map.WazidjaWisconsin.jpg" align="left" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026">Their native land, the <a href="ho.Wazija.html">Wazija</a> or &quot;Great Pinery,&quot; was originally anchored on Red Banks near modern Green Bay on the shores of Lake Michigan, but at the height of their power embraced a large area of Wisconsin and a portion of northern Illinois, as shown in blue against the green map of Wisconsin at left. Although they were forced to cede their lands in 1837, many families returned and have lived on their ancestral land for over a hundred years. Other members of the tribe also live on the Winnebago reservation in Nebraska. <a name="anchor41603705"></a>The Hocągara were surrounded by <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor27554">Algonquian</a> tribes such as the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor16112605">Menominee</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor16089714">Ojibwe</a> (= Ojibway, Chippewa, or Saulteurs), <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor19440716">Potawatomi</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor257455">Ottawa</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor1620448">Illini,</a> <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor35807476">Sauk</a> and <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor35689533">Fox</a>; but on occasions made war on more distant tribes such as the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor35858523">Osage</a> and <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor8923038">Dakota</a>. This geopolitical configuration resulted in the infiltration of significant Algonquian elements into Hocąk religion. </p>
19<p class="aj"><a name="anchor35206219"></a>The Hocąk language belongs to the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor06230814">Siouan</a> family, which includes <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor172188">Crow</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor42701">Hidatsa</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor1872867">Mandan</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor36305071">Assiniboine (Stoney),</a> <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor8867836">Sioux,</a> <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor19546470">Quapah</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor140157">Kansa</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor35858523">Osage</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor35161839">Omaha</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor15327633">Ponca,</a> <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor148820704">Ofo,</a> <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor407022">Biloxi</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor1600979">Catawba,</a> <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor19307690">Tutelo</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor19436497">Assegun</a> (?), and <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor30642188">Chiwere.</a> <a name="anchor11839791"></a>Hocąk is most closely allied to the Chiwere dialect group, which contains <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor99127729">Oto</a>, <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor501667">Ioway</a>, and <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor19543723">Missouria.</a><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031033"><sup>3</sup></a> The Chiwere languages separated from one another about the time of Columbus,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031034"><sup>4</sup></a> and the tribes sharing these tongues (as well as the more distant Omaha and Ponca) view the Hocągara as the original stock, referring to them as &quot;elder brothers.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031035"><sup>5</sup></a> The Siouan homeland was believed to lie in the east, in North Carolina or Kentucky. <a name="anchor10041036"></a>It is thought that the bulk of the Siouan tribes were pushed west by aggressive Eastern Algonquian enemies.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031036"><sup>6</sup></a> Some suggestion of this eastern origin is preserved in the <a href="ho.HocakArrivalMyth.html">&quot;Hocąk Arrival Myth,&quot;</a> although this evidence is open to a wide latitude of interpretation.</p>
20<hr>
21<p class="aj"><strong>The Names by which the Hocągara were Known.</strong> <a name="anchor43725094"></a>The established English name for the Hocągara is &quot;Winnebago,&quot; a term derived from the Algonquian tribes who surrounded them. This name comes in countless variants and in every conceivable form of spelling. <a name="anchor10041037"></a>It apparently became standardized in its present form after 1832 with the publication of Drake's very popular biographical book on Indians.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031037"><sup>7</sup></a> He seems to have modernized the <em>Winnebagoe</em> of Charlevoix's <em>magnum opus</em> which he cites frequently.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031038"><sup>8</sup></a> In 1632 Samuel de Champlain drew the earliest map of the Wisconsin region based upon information supplied by western Indians visiting Quebec. <a name="anchor81936250"></a>
21Setting down in <a href="ho.GlossaryNonIndianNations.html#anchor90211354">French</a> what these Indians had told him, he indicated the <em>Nation des Puans</em> to be by a lake (thought to be Lake Winnebago [<a href="Maps/map.LakeWinnebago.jpg">map</a>]). <a name="anchor938060"></a>The French <em>Puan(t)s</em> means &quot;Stinkards,&quot; and represents a translation of what the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html">Algonquian</a> tribes called the Hocągara.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031039"><sup>9</sup></a> <a name="anchor4923158"></a>The name is said to be in origin the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor16089714">Ojibwe</a> <em>Winnibígog, Winebégok,</em> &quot;Polluted Waters People.&quot; This derives from <em>winipig,</em> &quot;polluted water&quot; &lt; <em>win, wini, wi'nat,</em> &quot;dirty, impure,&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031040"><sup>10</sup></a> and <em>nipi,</em> &quot;water.&quot; When the plural suffix <em>-ak</em> is added, the latter becomes by contraction, <em>nipig,</em> &quot;waters.&quot; <a name="anchor10041038"></a>To this is added a terminal <em>-o,</em> indicating a person (plural, <em>-o-ag),</em> thus <em>Winnipigo(a)g</em> and its variants.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031041"><sup>11</sup></a> The closest version to that extant in English, and the presumed true original, is from the neighbors and allies of the Hocągara, the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor16112605">Menominee</a>, who call them <em>Winnibégo.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031042"><sup>12</sup></a> <a name="anchor285989"></a>However, since Ojibwe was a <em>lingua franca</em> of the day, the name probably spread through the medium of that language — compare the Sauk and Fox name <em>Winipyägohagi</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031043"><sup>13</sup></a> and the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor257455">Ottawa</a><em> Winnebagoag.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031044"><sup>14</sup></a> <a name="anchor19487081"></a>The <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor19440716">Potawatomi</a> call the Hocągara, <em>WInbye'go,</em> to which compare <em>winsawak,</em> &quot;filthy,&quot; <em>winkiwIn,</em> or <em>
21wInkayawIn,</em> &quot;muddy.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031045"><sup>15</sup></a> <a name="anchor190834"></a>To this compare the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor166469">Algonkin</a><em> Winipegou</em> of the same meaning.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031046"><sup>16</sup></a> <a name="anchor22646144"></a>The Ojibwe <em>winipig,</em> &quot;polluted water,&quot; is the name of the Canadian lake Winnipeg which also lies within their immense territory. <a name="anchor295290"></a>This root meaning led to a number of names for the Hocągara that are similar to &quot;Winnipeg&quot;: <em>Winnepeg</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031047"><sup>17</sup></a> <em>Ouinepeag</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031048"><sup>18</sup></a> <em><a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html#anchor293248">Ouinipigou</a></em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031049"><sup>19</sup></a> <em>Winipegouek</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031050"><sup>20</sup></a> <em>Winnipegouek</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031051"><sup>21</sup></a> <em>Ouinipegong</em>.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031052"><sup>22</sup></a> Names of this ilk probably led to<a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html#anchor2821038"> the odd theory</a> that the &quot;original&quot; home of the Hocągara is north of Lake Superior near Winnipeg.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031053"><sup>23</sup></a> <a name="anchor11840456"></a>The <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor1712563">Huron</a> (also known later as the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor1716016">Wyandot)</a> have an almost unpronounceable name for the Hocągara: <em>Aweataiwaenrrhonon, </em>given in 1636 as <em>A8eatai8aenrrhonon.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031054"><sup>24</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041039"></a>This name was corrupted into a number of French variants: <em>Aoueataiouaen-hronons</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031055"><sup>25</sup></a> <em>Aoueataiouaenronnons</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031056"><sup>26</sup></a> <em>Aoeataioaenronnon.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031057"><sup>27</sup></a> <a href="#anchor36405766">[see below</a>; and <a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html#anchor10433881">Gatschet]</a> Ca. 1876, Nicholas Cotter, Foster's Wyandot interpreter, said the name should be <em>Aweátsiwáirǫnǫ,</em> which he translated as &quot;Marsh Water People.&quot; The stem denotes bad, foul, or strong water, as in <em>aweátsiwái,</em> &quot;rum.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031058"><sup>28</sup></a> Gatschet breaks it down in the following way: <em>Huron</em> áwän' <em>water;</em> a <em>it</em> (pronoun), tsíwayän <em>sour and bitter,</em> rúnąn <em>people, men.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031059"><sup>29</sup></a> This means that the Wyandot-Huron name for the Hocągara is essentially the same in meaning as that of the Algonquian speakers. On the other hand, it is said that the Algonquian nations also call the ocean &quot;the polluted waters,&quot; since salt water is undrinkable. <a name="anchor1620703"></a>This appears to be what Governor Champlain or the French authorities <a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html#anchor293248">understood by the name</a>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031059"><sup>30</sup></a> since they sent Jean Nicollet to contact <em>Les Gens (des Eaux) de Mer,</em> &quot;the Tribe (of the Waters) of the Sea.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031060"><sup>31</sup></a> In 1634 they succeeded (depicted in the painting below), and we now know that the people Nicollet found were the Hocągara. However, the Hocągara did not live by the sea at all, but by the fresh waters of Lake Michigan. Dr. Foster, however, has a theory that would easily explain the name. He contends that the nation was named after Lake Winnebago, not the converse. He points out that besides the large Canadian Lake Winipeg, there are quite a number of other lakes of the same name. The marshy area about the upper Mississippi near the Falls of Pokeguma, the Ojibwe call <em>winipígoshish,</em> &quot;Little Dirty Waters.&quot; <a name="anchor10041040"></a>A lake of the same name is found to the northwest of Lake Winipeg in Canada. Foster also thinks that Green Bay, the original home of the Hocągara, once carried the same name.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031061"><sup>32</sup></a> <a name="anchor312982"></a>To make this case, he cites the Jesuit Relations of 1659-60: </p>
22<blockquote>
23  <p class="pt10">He  set out in the month of June, 1658, from the Lake of the Ouinipigouek, which,  properly speaking, is only a large Bay from that of the Hurons [meaning Lake  Michigan], others call it the Lake of the stinkards — not because it is salt,  like the water of the sea, which the savages call Ouinipeg, that is stinking  waters — but because it is surrounded by grounds that are impregnated with  sulphur, from whence issue many streams, which carry into this lake the malignity which these waters have contracted at their sources.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031062"><sup>33</sup></a></p>
24</blockquote>
25<p class="aj">This is probably another in an endless series of guesses. Unfortunately, Foster's theory is actually refuted by such testimony. The <em>Baye des Puants,</em> or <em>Winnipigoag,</em> means, &quot;Bay of the Winnebagoes,&quot; <em>-o</em> indicating a people, and <em>-ag</em> the plural. So too, therefore, with Lake Winnebago — here we find the suffix <em>-o</em> attached, which yields the meaning, &quot;Lake [of the] Hocąk.&quot; Both names make reference to a <em>people,</em> otherwise the lake and the bay would simply have been called <em>Winipeg.</em> Foster himself, <a href="#anchor8912168">quoted below,</a> says that it is the usual habit of the tribes to translate foreign names into their own tongues. <a name="anchor10041041"></a>Yet the Hocąk name for Lake Winnebago, <em>Te Xetera,</em> does not mean &quot;Dirty Waters,&quot; but &quot;Great Lake.&quot; In Hocąk the <em>Baye des Puants,</em> or <em>Winnipigoag,</em> was called <em>Te Rok, </em>&quot;Within Lake.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031063"><sup>34</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041042"></a>Although the area where the Fox River debauches into the bay was once marshy,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031064"><sup>35</sup></a> the waters of Green Bay as a whole are neither brackish nor muddy. Thus Foster's theory does not seem to hold water. However, there may be a way to save this theory. The Hocągara call Lake Michigan, <em>Te Šišik,</em> &quot;Bad Lake,&quot; not because it is polluted, but because its stormy weather can be fatal to people traveling in canoes. <a name="anchor10041043"></a>The Hocągara are said to have once lost 500 warriors while crossing the lake in a storm, and 600 on another occasion.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031065"><sup>36</sup></a>
25 However, to make this theory work, we would have to suppose that the Algonquians somewhat mistranslated &quot;Bad Waters People&quot; as &quot;Polluted Waters People.&quot; Furthermore, we have no record of the Hocągara calling themselves &quot;Lake Michigan People,&quot; nor could they, since many other people lived on that lake and occupied much more of its shoreline. </p>
26<p class="aj"><a name="anchor10041044"></a>Juliette Kinsie suggested another reason:</p>
27<blockquote>
28  <p class="pt10">The  Winnebago from the custom of wearing the fur of a polecat on their legs when  equipped for war are termed &quot;Les Puans,&quot; or to use their own  euphonious appellation &quot;Ho Tschung Rahs.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031066"><sup>37</sup></a></p>
29</blockquote>
30<p class="aj"><a name="anchor10041045"></a>The wearing of skunk fur leg bands is a particular war honor signifying that the man has kicked a slain enemy on the battlefield. Only if he does it twice may he wear such bands on both legs.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031067"><sup>38</sup></a> Even though the skunk has no powerful odor in its fur, such negative associations could at least be a contributing factor in the choice of names. <a name="anchor10041046"></a> Another idea is that Hocąk villages were noted for extensive stocks of dried fish, which would have made them malodorous.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031068"><sup>39</sup></a> It is not clear, however, that they were any more or less well supplied with fish than anyone else living on Lake Michigan. </p>
31<p class="aj"><a name="anchor10041047"></a>Lawson concludes that it seems more likely that &quot;Winnebago&quot; is just a name of insult given to them by their numerous enemies,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031069"><sup>40</sup></a> rather like calling them &quot;those stinking bastards.&quot; <a name="anchor8847970"></a>As a matter of fact, the lowest caste of <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor30807">Nachez</a> society is called, according to its French translation, <em>Puan,</em> &quot;Stinkard,&quot; almost certainly a term of denigration.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031070"><sup>41</sup></a> This practice is not at all uncommon especially among the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor16089714">Ojibwe,</a> who call the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor8867836">Sioux</a>, <em>Nadowessi(w),</em> &quot;Little Snakes,&quot; in contrast to the Iroquois, whom they call <em>Nadowe(k),</em> &quot;Adders.&quot; <a name="anchor0708165"></a>In Algonquian languages the Iroquois were called <em>Iri(n)kowi,</em> &quot;Real Serpents,&quot; by which they meant &quot;bitter enemies.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031071"><sup>42</sup></a> <a name="anchor-The-23522"></a>The former are known in English as &quot;Sioux,&quot; a French back formation of the Ojibwe name, showing that once an insulting name gets established, it is often uncritically accepted by other peoples who may not even understand what it means. <a name="anchor10041048"></a>Furthermore, the Ojibwe also called the Sioux, <em>Opwanak,</em> &quot;Those Whom we Roast.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031072"><sup>43</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041049"></a>This same habit of derision may have inspired the Ojibwe name for the Hocągara as well. Neill in his 1858 Minnesota history, tells us that the Ojibwe called them &quot;Filthy Water People&quot; <a href="#anchor81936250">[see above]</a> as a humorous reference to their alleged practice of bathing in dirty water.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031073"><sup>44</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041050"></a>This may explain this otherwise peculiar idea advanced by Long in his travelogue: &quot;The fourth day we encamped at <em>Lac les Puans,</em> so called, I apprehend, from the Indians who reside on the banks being naturally filthy.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031074"><sup>45</sup></a> <a name="anchor36405766"></a>Others, having heard this theory, examined the Hocągara and found them to be perfectly clean.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031075"><sup>46</sup></a> <a name="anchor2548834"></a>Such theories are inspired by the French mistranslation of the name Winnibégo (etc.), as <em>Puant,</em> &quot;Stinkard.&quot; As we have seen, it means not &quot;Filthy People&quot; <em>(Win-go),</em> but &quot;Filthy <em>Water</em> People&quot; <em>(Win-</em>nibe<em>-go).</em> <a name="anchor10041051"></a>The Ojibwe idea, rather than the name or word, passed to the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor1716016">Wyandot,</a> who inverted it, calling the Hocągara, <em>Hati'hahí rúnu,</em> &quot;Afraid of Sticking in the Mud.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031076"><sup>47</sup></a> (For other Huron versions, see <a href="#anchor11840456">above.)</a> Did the Hocągara really bathe in muddy water? If done for the sake of hygiene, such a practice makes no sense at all; but even a slander needs to be grounded in something. <a name="anchor16167297"></a>In this connection, it is important to remember that in war the Hocągara painted themselves vermilion, the color of muddy water: </p>
32<blockquote>
33  <p class="pt10">Before  going into battle, the Winnebagoes paint their bodies with vermilion, and with  white; daubing them with clay, to appear as frightful as possible, when facing  the enemy ...<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031077"><sup>48</sup></a></p>
34</blockquote>
35<p class="aj">In the old days war paints were made of clay (&quot;mud&quot;) and applied wet. The Hocąk warrior, vermilion from head to toe in clay paint, not only looked as if he had bathed in muddy water, but in a very real sense, had done just that. </p>
36<p class="aj"><a name="anchor46534088"></a>The name that the Winnebago call themselves, <em>Hocągara</em>, apparently was first recorded by the French historian Charlevoix as <em>Otchagra</em>
36 when he traversed their country in the year 1721.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031078"><sup>49</sup></a> What this name means has also been the subject of considerable debate. Everyone seems to agree that the name <em>Hocąk</em> (&gt; <em>Ho-cąk-ga-ra</em> &gt; <em>Hocągara)</em> is to be analyzed into two basic component words, <em>ho</em> and <em>cąk.</em> Otherwise, the literature on its meaning is full of disagreement. <a name="anchor10041052"></a>The view that once held the strongest position, though a minority one at present, was the contention held by J. O. Dorsey and others that the name <em>Hocągara</em> meant &quot;People of the Parent Speech.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031079"><sup>50</sup></a> Radin rejects this interpretation as a forced attempt to read into the name the widely recognize status of the Hocągara as a parent nation for many of the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor30642188">Chiwere</a> and <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor2849838">Çegiha</a> nations. <a name="anchor10041053"></a>While <em>ho</em> can mean &quot;speech,&quot; <em>cąk</em> (or <em>cųk</em>) cannot mean &quot;original,&quot; but rather only &quot;big, real,&quot; inasmuch as it is <a href="ho.Glossary.html#anchor09191125">cognate</a> to Sioux <em>tąka,</em> of similar meaning <a href="#anchor33017240">(see below)</a>.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031080"><sup>51</sup></a> However, this response proves to be simplistic owing partly to the fact that Radin does not seem to have been acquainted with the source of this theory, which was first promulgated in 1850 or 1851 by Pasarécka, &quot;Long Nose,&quot; better known as The Prophet. He, and others as well, said the name <em>Hocągara</em> came from <em>ho,</em> &quot;voice, speech,&quot; <em>cąnína,</em> &quot;first, original,&quot; and <em>ka-ra,</em> &quot;the people [of].&quot; <a name="anchor10041054"></a>Thus, Foster concluded, the name meant, &quot;People of the Original or Primitive Language.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031081"><sup>52</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041055"></a>However, the linguistics of this theory does not hold up, showing that it is a species of the universal practice of mythological etymology, meant in this case to establish that the Hocągara were the first people created by Earthmaker (see also above).<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031082"><sup>53</sup></a> For the literal meaning (or meanings) of the name, we have to look elsewhere. Since <em>ho</em> also means &quot;voice,&quot; the name <em>Hocąk</em> could also mean, &quot;Big Voice.&quot; <a name="anchor10041056"></a>However, the contention that seems most widely accepted is that <em>ho-</em> means &quot;fish,&quot; and that therefore <em>Hocągara</em> means &quot;the Big Fish People.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031083"><sup>54</sup></a> In the XXᵀᴴ century, Albert Yellow Thunder (Thunderbird Clan) maintained the same thing.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031084"><sup>55</sup></a><a name="anchor14950583"></a> One of the earliest sources for this contention is Wak&rsquo;ąhaga (&quot;Snake Skin&quot;) <a href="People/image.Wakanhaka.jpg">[portrait],</a> who said that <em>Hocągara</em> meant &quot;Large Fish,&quot; by which he understood a whale (&quot;the one that spouts water&quot;).<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031085"><sup>56</sup></a> <a name="anchor35864335"></a>In <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor35858523">Osage</a>, <em>Hotǫga,</em> their name for the Hocągara, also means &quot;large fish, whale&quot;],<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031086"><sup>57</sup></a> although the same <em>Hotonga</em> appears in Prince Maximilian's account, where it is understood to mean &quot;Fish <em>Eaters.&quot;</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031087"><sup>58</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041057"></a>Gallatin says that they called themselves <em>Hochungohrah, </em>which he translated as &quot;Trout Nation,&quot; and that they were also called <em>Horoje,</em> &quot;Fish Eaters.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031088"><sup>59</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041073"></a>This name would seem to be a corruption of <em>Ho-rucge,</em> which is found in other sources as <em>Ho-ro-ge</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031089"><sup>60</sup></a> and <em>Horoji</em>.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031090"><sup>61</sup></a> The name <em>Horucge</em> would suggest that they are called &quot;Big Fish&quot; because they are especially noted for fishing. But why are they any more known for this than other people on the lakes? Wak&rsquo;ąhaga's suggestion to the contrary is that they are named <em>after</em> a fish, specifically the whale, or according to Gallatin's odd translation, the trout. <a name="anchor16662245"></a>To  get a clearer view of the matter some examination of the second member of the compound is necessary. Radin says,</p>
37<blockquote>
38  <p class="aj"><a name="anchor33017240"></a><font class="pt10">. . . <em>cungk</em> can only mean one thing and that is &quot;big, real.&quot; It is  found with a number of animal names, such as <em>kecungk,</em> &quot;turtle,&quot; and <em>cunkcungk,</em> &quot;wolf.&quot; It corresponds strictly to the  Dakota <em>tank,</em> &quot;large.&quot; <em>Ho</em> means &quot;fish&quot; in  Winnebago.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031091"><sup>62</sup></a></font></p>
39</blockquote>
40<p class="aj">The problem with <em>cųk</em> being the stem in question is that it does not satisfy either the standard spelling of <em>Hocąk</em> nor its pronunciation. The proper stem would seem to be <em>cąk.</em> The nasalized vowel [ą] in this word approximates the sound of the English &quot;uh,&quot; so that <em>cųk</em> may at least sometimes reflect a mere spelling convention. <a name="anchor10041058"></a>In contemporary usage, for instance, &quot;turtle,&quot; is given as <em>kecank,</em> and &quot;snapping turtle,&quot; as <em>kecankxete</em> (<em>-xete,</em> &quot;large, old&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031092"><sup>63</sup></a> ).<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031093"><sup>64</sup></a> Compare the Osage <em>kétǫga,</em> &quot;snapping turtle.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031094"><sup>65</sup></a> Marino's dictionary does not mention <em>cųk,</em> and while it has <em>kecųge,</em> &quot;turtle, tortoise,&quot; it does not even mention the name for the wolf.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031095"><sup>66</sup></a> However, Radin usually spelled the word for wolf, <em>šųkcųk,</em> with a [ų] reflecting a longer value to the vowel, although both <a href="ho.WolfClanOriginMyth.html#anchor43209013">Dorsey</a> and <a href="ho.WolfClanOriginMyth.html#anchor43195236">Lurie</a> have spelled the second syllable with an [ą]. The word in the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor2849838">Çegiha Siouan</a> languages was originally <em>*tǫga</em> or <em>*tǫka. </em>The [ǫ] lost its phonemic value in Hocąk and was usually resolved as either [ą] or [ų], which may explain the alternances that we see in <em>kecąk/šųkcųk,</em> etc. <a name="anchor10041059"></a><em>Cąk,</em> however, is also said to mean &quot;praiseworthy&quot; as in <em>hįnacągirekje,</em> &quot;to speak well of,&quot; and <em>woracągira,</em> &quot;to be praiseworthy.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031096"><sup>67</sup></a> The word very clearly has this meaning in an important <em><a href="ho.Glossary.html#anchor207530">waiką,</a></em> the <a href="ho.HocakClansOriginMyth.html">Hocąk Clans Origin Myth</a>. <a name="anchor10041059"></a>In this story, the clan ancestors, once they have come together for the first time, must now decide what language they should speak: </p>
41<blockquote>
42  <p class="pt10"><a href="ho.Glossary.html#anchor9617826">The Earth and Sky People</a> queried of  themselves, &quot;Which language will we speak together?&quot; The eldest of  the twelve, Thunder, replied, &quot;We will speak Ho-Chunk [= Ho-cąk].&quot; <em>Chunk</em> [= <em>cąk</em>] is a word meaning praise. The elder had encouraged the beings to  speak their language in praise of the Creator [<a href="ho.Earthmaker.html">Earthmaker</a>].  Ho-Chunk would become the voice of praise.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031097"><sup>68</sup></a></p>
43</blockquote>
44<p class="aj">The expression <em>ho cąk</em> can vary in meaning from &quot;praiseworthy speech&quot; to &quot;great voice,&quot; although even in English, these two expressions have a common meaning. The word <em>cąk</em> is also found in <em>wákącąk,</em> an expansion of <em>wak'ą</em> &quot;spiritual power.&quot; <em>Wákącąk</em> means properly, &quot;having great spiritual power, holy, sacred,&quot; not necessarily praiseworthy power, as certain evil things and beings are <em>wákącąk</em> purely on account of the magnitude of their supernatural power. From this it appears that we have a convergence of two words in the form of a homonym <em>cąk,</em> or an earlier word <em>*tǫk</em> meaning &quot;great&quot; that has evolved into <em>cąk,</em> with two independent secondary meanings, &quot;big&quot; and &quot;praiseworthy.&quot; Perhaps more likely is that the word that evolved into <em>cąk,</em> meaning &quot;praiseworthy,&quot; became semantically confounded with the evolving word <em>*tǫk,</em> whose [ǫ] was being transformed. The usual direction of this transformation is either [ą] or [ų], so that the semantic confusion actually led to a bifurcation, producing two forms, <em>cąk</em> and <em>cųk,</em> both of which were taken to mean the same thing in most contexts. </p>
45<p class="aj">As to the first part of the compound, the word <em>ho</em> can also mean, &quot;voice, language, to howl.&quot; A wolf's howl is denoted by <em>šųgere hoire.</em> <a name="anchor10041060"></a>Other words from this stem are: <em>wahohi xeteną,</em> &quot;deep of voice,&quot; <em>
45hihohaną,</em> &quot;I ask permission&quot;; <em>hihoragi,</em> &quot;you address&quot;; <em>hojarara,</em> &quot;echo&quot;;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031098"><sup>69</sup></a> <em>wiho,</em> &quot;witness&quot;; and <em>wihohiją,</em> &quot;to be a witness.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10031099"><sup>70</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041061"></a>In the Upper Moiety, we have at least two proper names from this stem: <em>Hopįga,</em> &quot;Good Voice,&quot; and <em>Hocąteįwįga,</em> &quot;Audible Voice.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004101"><sup>71</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041062"></a>This sense of the word also has <a href="ho.Glossary.html#anchor09191125">cognates</a> in other Siouan languages: Sioux <em>ho,</em> &quot;the voice either of a man or of any animal or thing; sound in general;&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004102"><sup>72</sup></a> Osage <em>ho-, hu-, </em>&quot;voice, sound, etc.&quot;;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004103"><sup>73</sup></a> Ponca <em>ho,</em> &quot;voice&quot;;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004104"><sup>74</sup></a> Omaha, <em>hu,</em> &quot;voice,&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004105"><sup>75</sup></a><a name="anchor148822683"></a><a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor148820704">Ofo</a>, <em>hóhe,</em> &quot;to bellow (like a bull), to howl (like a wolf).&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004106"><sup>76</sup></a> So there can be little question that the name Hocąk can mean, &quot;Big, Great Voice.&quot;</p>
46<p class="aj">A further clue is found in how other peoples understand the meaning of <em>Hocąk.</em> <a name="anchor19309639"></a>&quot;... in these investigations I have noticed, that aboriginal nations, unless there is some special reason to the contrary, — for instance a special enmity — ... all endeavor to translate into their own vernacular the names of neighboring tribes, rather than adopt them bodily ...&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004107"><sup>77</sup></a> <a name="anchor1301379"></a>In Plains Indian sign language, as was seen in distant Oklahoma, the Hocągra were denoted by the signs for &quot;big&quot; and &quot;voice.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1301380"><sup>77.1</sup></a> <a name="anchor13355385"></a>The Sioux call the Hocągara, <em>Ho-tą́-ke,</em> &quot;Great Voices.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004108"><sup>78</sup></a> This is not a corruption of <em>Ho-cągara,</em> but a translation: from the Sioux <em>ho,</em> &quot;voice&quot;; and <em>tą́-ka, </em>&quot;large, great in any way.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor1004109"><sup>79</sup></a> The ordinary expression for &quot;a great or loud voice,&quot; is <em>ho´tąka</em> (Buechel) or <em>ho´tąke</em> (Riggs).<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041010"><sup>80</sup></a> The word <em>ho,</em> meaning fish(-net) is said to be a contraction of <em>hoǧą́,</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041011"><sup>81</sup></a> which all agree is the ordinary word for &quot;fish.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041012"><sup>82</sup></a> <a name="anchor54439402"></a>If the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor31797920">Lakota</a> had thought that the Hocągara called themselves &quot;Big Fish,&quot; then they would have translated the name as <em>Hoǧątąke.</em> <a name="anchor35204172"></a> In the kindred <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor2849838">Çegiha Sioux</a> languages, we find that the Ponca call them <em>Hotǫga</em>,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041013"><sup>83</sup></a> and the <a href="ho.GlossaryIndianNations.html#anchor35161839">Omaha</a>, <em>Hu-tǫga,</em> both of which are understood to mean &quot;Big Voices&quot;;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041014"><sup>84</sup></a> and we may add, perhaps, the Osage <em>Hutąka.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041015"><sup>85</sup></a> The Quapah call them <em>Hútąka,</em> but how they understood this is not recorded.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041016"><sup>86</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041063"></a>It would not be unusual for a tribe to carry a name like &quot;
46Great Voice,&quot; since names of similar meaning are given to individual people, as in the Omaha and Osage name, <em>Hothagthį,</em> &quot;Good Voice,&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041017"><sup>87</sup></a> and Osage, <em>Hó-ça-zhį-e,</em> &quot;Young, Strong Voice.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041018"><sup>88</sup></a> However, the matter is complicated by the Osage, who understand their name for the Hocągara, <em>Hó-tǫ-ga,</em> to mean &quot;Big Fish People.&quot; Like the Hocągara, they have retained the word <em>ho</em> meaning &quot;fish,&quot; but unlike them, they have not retained the homonym meaning &quot;voice (etc.)&quot; outside compounds. <a name="anchor10041064"></a>This word became <em>hu</em> in Osage,<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041019"><sup>89</sup></a> and is found in the compound, <em>hú-ça-gi,</em> &quot;to exclaim, shout,&quot; where <em>ça-gi</em> means &quot;firm, solid; strong, hard.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041020"><sup>90</sup></a> Yet there exists the intimately akin expression, <em>hó-ça-gi,</em> which means &quot;to call loudly, to yell.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041021"><sup>91</sup></a> In addition, we find the word embedded in <em>hótǫ, </em>&quot;the cry or call of animals or birds.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041022"><sup>92</sup></a> The same alternance observed in Hocąk between the [o] and [u] also exists transparently enough in Osage. <a name="anchor10041065"></a>The alternance leads, unfortunately, to the same ambiguity in the name for the Hocągara: the word <em>hu</em> not only means &quot;voice,&quot; but also &quot;fish,&quot; as may be seen in these words where <em>hu</em> is not compounded: <em>hu btháçka tǫga,</em> &quot;buffalo fish,&quot; <em>hu btháçka jįga,</em> &quot;perch,&quot; <em>hu gthée,</em> &quot;pickerel,&quot; <em>hu íha jįga,</em> &quot;sucker fish,&quot; <em>hu íthuxe,</em> &quot;fish net,&quot; <em>hu páçi stsee,</em> &quot;gar fish,&quot; <em>hu pátnidse,</em> &quot;tadpole,&quot; <em>hu wéts'a,</em> &quot;eel.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041023"><sup>93</sup></a> <a name="anchor10041066"></a>Even the Osage name for the Hocąk people shows the same alternance: <em>Hótǫga, Hútǫga.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041024"><sup>94</sup></a> However, the Osage dictionary recognizes one asymmetry: the people are called variously <em>Hótǫga, Hútǫga,</em> but only the language is called <em>Hútǫga ïe.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041025"><sup>95</sup></a> This suggests that the Osage preferred to call the Hocąk language &quot;the Big Voice language,&quot; and the people ambiguously, &quot;Big Fish, Whales&quot; or &quot;Big Voice.&quot; This preference for disambiguation in the former case naturally flows from the association of language and voice. </p>
47<p class="aj"><a name="anchor10041067"></a>Officially, the contemporary tribe in Wisconsin calls itself &quot;the Ho-Chunk Nation, People of the Big Voice.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041026"><sup>96</sup></a> Blair, apparently in a personal communication to Dorsey and Radin, reported that Thomas Forsyth said that they called themselves <em>O-tan-gan,</em> which he claimed meant, &quot;Great Voice.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041027"><sup>97</sup></a> This should settle the matter were it not for the predominant contention in olden times that the name meant &quot;Big Fish&quot; or &quot;Whale,&quot; or even &quot;Trout.&quot; Indeed, there is some evidence that the fish in question may have been the sturgeon (see the <a href="ho.WhiteFlower.html#anchor8355528">Commentary</a> to the story &quot;White Flower&quot;). The solution to the issue about the &quot;real&quot; meaning of the name is simple: it is ambiguous from its inception: it means &quot;Whale,&quot; &quot;Big Fish,&quot; &quot;Big Voice,&quot; &quot;Praiseworthy Voice,&quot; and can even yield the humorous, though unattested interpretation, &quot;Praiseworthy Fish&quot; (!). This inherent ambiguity is useful for mythological purposes, as well as, perhaps, creating an exoteric/esoteric divide in the full understanding of the significance of the name.</p>
48<p class="aj">What does it mean to say that the Hocągara are the People of the Great V
48oice? <a name="anchor8912168"></a>Foster opines that it should mean,</p>
49<blockquote>
50  <p class="pt10">perhaps <em>loud-</em>voiced in a certain sense;  which name must be admitted to have considerable point to it by all who have  ever heard the Winnebago — their women especially — who talk in so loud and  shrill a key that listening to them at times becomes almost painful to the ear.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041028"><sup>98</sup></a></p>
51</blockquote>
52<p class="aj">The decibel volume of their speech is something an outsider would find notable, to an insider it would seem normal. What is the &quot;inside&quot; view of this matter? <a name="anchor10041068"></a>The &quot;Tale of Cap&rsquo;ósgaga,&quot; tells us that, </p>
53<blockquote>
54  <p class="pt10">In  the early days of their existence the Winnebago were a successful people. They  all fasted and were blessed by the spirits. It is for that reason that they  were powerful and were called <em>Hocągara.</em><a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041029"><sup>99</sup></a></p>
55</blockquote>
56<p class="aj">This explains why they are called &quot;Big Voices&quot;: when they spoke to other nations, they were heard. <a name="anchor10041069"></a>They had, as even whites would say today, &quot;a big voice&quot; in anything that went on. In a parallel logic, the deaf <em>(nǫxnįk)</em> are said in Hocąk to have &quot;little ears,&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041030"><sup>100</sup></a> so that by implication those who hear well would have big ears. Therefore, by the same logic, those who are heard well, would have Big Voices. This is the same as saying metaphorically that among the fish of the sea, the Hocągara are whales. </p>
57<p class="aj">This discussion leads us to an interesting speculation. Viewing the matter historically, we cannot reconstruct the name for the proto-Chiwere from comparative Chiwere, since the <a href="#anchor11839791">present names</a> of the tribes do not derive from an ancient common name. However, the Chiwere tribes recognize the Hocągara as the parent tribe, and would therefore concede that whatever that tribe called itself in ca. 1500 was the name for the proto-Chiwere. <a name="anchor10041070"></a>The proto-Çegiha tribes (&gt; Omaha, Osage, Ponca, Quapah, Kansa), apparently called themselves <em>*Hǫga, </em>or <em>*Hǫgatǫga,</em> &quot;(Big) Chief People.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041031"><sup>101</sup></a> In Hocąk this would be <em>Hųgecąk</em> or <em>Hųkcąk, </em>from <em>hųge,</em> &quot;leader,&quot; or <em>hųk,</em> &quot;chief.&quot;<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041032"><sup>102</sup></a> If we posit an earlier <em>*Hǫgetǫk</em> or <em>*Hǫktǫk,</em> we can easily see how a pun (<em>Hǫktǫk/Hotǫk, </em>or later <em>Hokcąk, Hųkcąk/Hocąk</em>) could have developed based upon the fact that the tribe had settled where fish <em>(ho)</em> were in great abundance. Furthermore, the whale might well be considered the chief of fishes, leading to a close assonance between the words for &quot;whale,&quot; and &quot;great chief.&quot; Furthermore, the [k] of the hypothetical <em>*Hǫkcąk</em> could easily disappear under this process into the more pronounceable <em>Hocąk.</em> <a name="anchor10041071"></a>The [ǫ] was lost as a phoneme in Hocąk — in some words the original [ǫ] transmuted to either [ą] or a simple [o], as from an earlier <em>*mǫ-, </em>&quot;earth,&quot; Hocąk <em>mą-, </em>to forms such as <em>mogo,</em> &quot;banks,&quot; <em>Mogašuc,</em> &quot;Red Banks,&quot; <em>moro,</em> &quot;shore,&quot; <em>mopase,</em> &quot;bluff,&quot; etc.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041033"><sup>103</sup></a></p>
58<hr>
59<p class="aj"><strong>The history of the Hōcągara.</strong> See Lee Sultzman's <a href="http://www.dickshovel.com/win.html">&quot;Winnebago History,&quot;</a> in the general &quot;First Nations History.&quot;</p>
60<hr>
61<p class="aj"><strong>The Mythological Corpus.</strong> <a name="anchor10041072"></a>There is a vast body of mythology collected from the Hocągara principally by the ethnographer Paul Radin at the turn of the century.<a href="ho.IntroductionNotes.html#anchor10041034"><sup>104</sup></a> He had to overcome the fact that almost all stories were literally owned by members of the tribe, and could be passed on in full form only by being purchased at great expense. The reason for this is probably the differences in opinion to which clan structure gives rise. Hocąk mythology is complicated by a social factor: every clan and every religious society has its own point of view, and frequently these perspectives are unique and at variance with one another. This gives rise to several variants of most myths, especially those that touch upon the subject of the clans themselves or their spiritual patrons and allies. Some variants of a myth can be insulting or otherwise denigrating to another clan, and this may explain in part the practice of keeping full versions of a myth secret. The myth itself becomes the property of a particular individual, and the right to hear a full version of a story must be purchased often at great expense. Some myths are publicly told only in shortened versions, and in many cases, a short version of a myth may be sold at a reduced price. Therefore, by keeping myths esoteric, the socially damaging effects of inter-clan rivalry can be kept to a minimum. That we have preserved as many myths as we have owes to an accident of history: at the time Paul Radin collected his material, the Hocągara had come heavily under the influence of the Christian Peyote Cult, many of whose members, having become hostile to the old pagan traditions, felt no compunction about telling every myth that they had heard, including whole cycles. As a result, the Hocąk mythology now in our possession gives us a window upon the &quot;Hocąk mind&quot; and to some extent that vast corpus of systematic thinking encoded in Native American mythology generally.</p>
62<div align="center">
63  <table width="200" border="1">
64    <tr>
65      <td><div align="center"> <img border="0" width="193" height="127"
66 src="ho.Introduction_files/image001.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1033"> </div></td>
67    </tr>
68    <tr>
69      <td height="22"><div align="center"> An Earthmaker Flag </div></td>
70    </tr>
71  </table>
72</div>
73<hr>
74<p class="aj"><strong>Links: </strong><a href="ho.Wazija.html">The
75  Wazija</a>, <a href="ho.Spirits.html">Spirits</a>, <a
76href="ho.SupernaturalPower.html">Supernatural &amp; Spiritual Power</a>, <a
77href="ho.LakeWinnebago.html">Lake Winnebago</a>.</p>
78<hr>
79<p class="aj"><strong>Stories:</strong> about the <strong>origins of the Hocąk
80  nation</strong>: <a
81href="ho.HocakArrivalMyth.html">The Hocąk Arrival Myth</a>, <a
82href="ho.GreenWaterspiritOfWiscDells.html">The Green Waterspirit of the Wisconsin Dells</a>, <a href="ho.HocakMigration.html">The Hocąk Migration Myth</a>, <a
83href="ho.CreationCouncil.html">The Creation Council</a>, <a
84href="ho.GreatWalkersWarpath.html">Great Walker's Warpath</a>, <a
85href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I</a>;
86  about the <strong>separation of the Hocągara</strong> from other Siouan nations: <a
87href="ho.IowayMissouriaOrigins.html">Ioway &amp; Missouria Origins</a>, <a
88href="ho.QuapahOrigins.html">Quapah Origins</a>, cf. <a
89href="ho.HocakMigration.html">The Hocąk Migration Myth</a>; about the <strong>migration
90  of the Hocągara</strong>: <a
91href="ho.GreenWaterspiritOfWiscDells.html">The Green Waterspirit of the Wisconsin Dells</a>, <a href="ho.HocakArrivalMyth.html">The Hocąk Arrival Myth</a>, <a
92href="ho.HocakMigration.html">The Hocąk Migration Myth</a>, <a
93href="ho.HocakMigrationSouth.html">The Hocągara Migrate South</a>, cf. <a
94href="ho.HocakClansOriginMyth.html">Hocąk Clans Origin Myth</a>; pertaining
95  to <strong>the name <em>Hocąk:</em></strong> <a href="ho.WhiteFlower.html">White Flower</a>; <a
96href="ho.HocakClansOriginMyth.html">Hocąk Clans Origin Myth</a>; pertaining
97  to <strong>the name <em>Winnebago:</em></strong> <a href="me.WinnebagoNameOrigin.html">Origin of the
98  Name &quot;Winnebago&quot; (Menominee)</a>; mentioning the <strong>Wazija</strong>: <a
99href="ho.HocakMigration.html">The Hocąk Migration Myth</a>, <a
100href="ho.TricksterAndGeese.html">Trickster and the Geese</a>, <a
101href="ho.FirstFoxAndSaukWar.html">The First Fox and Sauk War</a>, <a
102href="ho.HocakMigrationSouth.html">The Hocągara Migrate South</a>, <a
103href="ho.CosmicAges.html">The Cosmic Ages of the Hocągara</a>, <a
104href="ho.DeerSpirits.html">Deer Spirits</a>, <a href="ho.Warughabera.html">Waruǧábᵉra</a>;
105  about the (post-Columbian) <strong>history of the Hōcągara</strong>: <a href="ho.CosmicAges.html"> The Cosmic Ages of the Hocągara</a>, <a href="ho.HocakMigrationSouth.html">The Hocągara Migrate South</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-II.html">Annihilation of the Hocągara II</a>, <a href="ho.FirstContact.html">First Contact</a>, <a href="ho.OriginOfDecorahs.html">Origin of the Decorah Family</a>, <a href="ho.GloryOfMorning.html">The Glory of the Morning</a>, <a href="ho.FirstFoxAndSaukWar.html">The First Fox and Sauk War</a>, <a href="ho.FoxHocakWar.html">The Fox-Hocąk War</a>, <a href="ho.MasaxeWar.html">The Masaxe War</a>, <a href="ho.ShawneeProphetAscension.html">The Shawnee Prophet and His Ascension</a>, <a href="ho.ShawneeProphetTellsHocagara.html">The Shawnee Prophet — What He Told the Hocągara</a>, <a href="ho.BlackOttersWarpath.html">Black Otter's Warpath</a>, <a href="ho.GreatWalkersMedicine.html">Great Walker's Medicine</a>, <a href="ho.GreatWalkersWarpath.html">Great Walker's Warpath</a>, <a href="ho.ChiefWhoShotHisDaughter.html">The Chief Who Shot His Own Daughter</a>, <a href="ho.LittlePriestStory.html">How Little Priest went out as a Soldier</a>, <a href="ho.LittlePriestsGame.html">Little Priest's Game</a>, <a href="ho.SpanishFight.html">The Spanish Fight</a>, <a href="ho.WarOfIndianTribes.html">The War of Indian Tribes against White Soldiers</a>, <a href="ho.DiggingATrenchAndWhiteStrategy.html">Digging a Trench and White Strategy</a>, <a href="ho.SoldiersCatchTwoBoys.html">Soldiers Catch Two Boys, a Black One and a White One</a>, <a href="ho.ManWhoFoughtForty.html">The Man who Fought against Forty</a>, <a href="ho.BigCanoeOriginOfHisName.html">The Origin of Big Canoe's Name</a>, <a href="ho.JarrotsAbortedRaid.html">Jarrot's Aborted Raid</a>, <a href="ho.TheyOweBullet.html">They Owe a Bullet</a>, <a href="ho.MilwaukeeNameOrigin.html">Origin of the Name &quot;Milwaukee,&quot;</a> <a href="ho.FoiledNightAssault.html">The Foiled Night Assault</a>, <a href="ho.WaterspiritBlessesManixeteuga.html">A Waterspirit Blesses Mąnį́xete&rsquo;ų́ga</a>, <a href="ho.ChicagoNameOrigin.html">Origin of the Hocąk Name for &quot;Chicago&quot;</a>;
106  mentioning the <strong>Ioway</strong>: <a href="ho.IowayMissouriaOrigins.html">Ioway &amp; Missouria Origins</a>, <a href="ho.PeteDupeeAndGhosts.html">Pete Dupeé and the Ghosts</a>, <a href="ho.KeramanishakasBlessing.html">Keramaniš’aka's Blessing</a>, <a href="ho.WomansScalpBundle.html">
106The Woman's Scalp Medicine Bundle</a>, <a href="ho.MigistegasMagic.html">Migistéga’s Magic</a>, <a href="ho.LittlePriestsGame.html">Little Priest's Game</a>, <a href="ho.PeyoteStory.html">A Peyote Story</a>; mentioning the <strong>Missouria</strong>: <a href="ho.IowayMissouriaOrigins.html">Ioway &amp; Missouria Origins</a>, <a href="ho.BlackOttersWarpath.html">Black Otter's Warpath</a>; mentioning the <strong>Oto</strong>: <a href="ho.IowayMissouriaOrigins.html">Ioway &amp; Missouria Origins</a>, <a href="ho.LittlePriestsGame.html">Little Priest's Game</a>, <a href="ho.UnluckyHorse.html">The Unlucky Horse</a>, <a href="ho.PeyoteStory.html">A Peyote Story</a>; mentioning the <strong>Omaha</strong>: <a href="ho.QuapahOrigins.html">Quapah Origins</a>, <a href="ho.OmahasBecomeSnakes.html">The Omahas who turned into Snakes</a>, <a href="ho.IowayMissouriaOrigins.html">Ioway &amp; Missouria Origins</a>, <a href="ho.LittlePriestsGame.html">Little Priest's Game</a>, <a href="ho.UnluckyHorse.html">The Unlucky Horse</a>; mentioning the <strong>Ponca</strong>: <a href="ho.WhiteShirt.html">White Shirt</a>; mentioning the <strong>Osage</strong>: <a href="ho.OsageMassacre.html">The Osage Massacre</a>, <a href="ho.BigThunderTeachesCaposgaga.html">Big Thunder Teaches Cap’ósgaga the Warpath</a>, <a href="ho.MansWifeCaptured.html#anchor12221298">The Man Whose Wife was Captured (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.FirstContact.html#anchor06060916">First Contact (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.BlackOttersWarpath.html">Black Otter's Warpath</a>;  mentioning the <strong>Sioux</strong> (<em>Šąhą</em>): <a href="ho.SiouxWarpartyAndWaterspiritOfGreenLake.html"> The Sioux Warparty and the Waterspirit of Green Lake</a>, <a href="ho.MilwaukeeNameOrigin.html">Origin of the Name &quot;Milwaukee,&quot;</a> <a href="ho.LittlePriestsGame.html">Little Priest's Game</a>, <a href="ho.BerdacheOriginMyth.html">Berdache Origin Myth</a>, <a href="ho.GreatWalkersWarpath.html">Great Walker's Warpath</a>, <a href="ho.PotatoMagic.html">Potato Magic</a>, <a href="ho.MasaxeWar.html">The Masaxe War</a>, <a href="ho.WhiteFlower.html">White Flower</a>, <a href="ho.ManWhoFoughtForty.html">The Man who Fought against Forty</a>, <a href="ho.FirstContact.html">First Contact (vv. 2-3)</a>, <a href="ho.OmahasBecomeSnakes.html">The Omahas who turned into Snakes</a>, <a href="ho.UnluckyHorse.html">The Unlucky Horse</a>, <a href="ho.LoveBlessing.html">The Love Blessing</a>, <a href="ho.RunForYourLife.html">Run for Your Life</a>, <a href="ho.ScalpingKnifeWakashuchka.html">The Scalping Knife of Wakąšucka</a>; mentioning the <strong>Illinois</strong> (Illini): <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.WaterspiritBlessesManixeteuga.html">A Waterspirit Blesses Mąnį́xete&rsquo;ų́ga</a>, <a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html">Gatschet's Hocank hit’e (St. Peet ...)</a>; mentioning the <strong>Ottawa</strong> (Odawa): <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-II.html">Annihilation of the Hocągara II</a>, <a href="ho.ChiefWhoShotHisDaughter.html">The Chief Who Shot His Own Daughter</a>, <a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html">Gatschet's Hocank hit’e (St. Peet ...)</a>; mentioning the <strong>Ojibwe</strong> (Chippewa, Ojibway): <a href="ho.WhiteFisher.html">White Fisher</a>, <a href="ho.WhiteThundersWarpath.html">White Thunder's Warpath</a>, <a href="ho.GreatWalkerAndOjibweWitches.html">Great Walker and the Ojibwe Witches</a>, <a href="ho.MasaxeWar.html">The Masaxe War</a>, <a href="ho.TwoChildren.html">The Two Children</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-II.html#anchor3950238">The Annihilation of the Hocągara II</a>, <a href="ho.FirstFoxAndSaukWar.html">The First Fox and Sauk War</a>, <a href="ho.WaterspiritBlessesManixeteuga.html">A Waterspirit Blesses Mąnį́xete&rsquo;ų́ga</a>, <a href="ho.FirstContact.html">First Contact (vv. 2-3)</a>; mentioning the <strong>Menominee</strong>: <a href="me.WinnebagoNameOrigin.html">Origin of the Name "Winnebago" (Menominee)</a>, <a href="ho.HocakArrivalMyth.html">The Hocąk Arrival Myth</a>, <a href="ho.BearClanOriginMyth.html#anchor-4957225">Bear Clan Origin Myth (v. 2b)</a> (Origins of the Menominee), <a href="ho.FoxHocakWar.html">The Fox-Hocąk War</a>, <a href="ho.FirstContact.html">First Contact</a>, <a href="ho.MagicalPowersOfLincolnsGrandfather.html">The Magical Powers of Lincoln's Grandfather</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-II.html">Annihilation of the Hocągara II</a>, <a href="ho.ProphetVisitsHocagara.html">The Prophet Visits the Hōcągara</a>, <a href="ho.TwoRoads2Spiritland.html">Two Roads to Spiritland</a>, <a href="ho.MenomineeVisit.html">A Menominee Visit</a>, <a href="ho.SongToTheChiefs.html">Song to the Chiefs</a>, <a href="ho.Takira.html">Takira</a>, <a href="ho.TwoChildren.html">The Two Children</a>, <a href="ho.WaterspiritBlessesManixeteuga.html">A Waterspirit Blesses Mąnį́xete&rsquo;ų́ga</a>, <a href="ho.JourneyOfProphetsAcolyte.html">The Journey of the Prophet’s Acolyte</a>, <a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html">Gatschet's Hocank hit’e (Extracts ...)</a>; mentioning the <strong>Sauk</strong> (Sac, Sagi): <a href="ho.FirstFoxAndSaukWar.html"> The First Fox and Sauk War</a>, <a href="ho.MijistegaAndSauks.html">Mijistéga and the Sauks</a>, <a href="ho.ProphetVisitsHocagara.html">The Prophet Visits the Hōcągara</a>, <a href="ho.BlackOttersWarpath.html">Black Otter's Warpath</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-II.html">Annihilation of the Hocągara II</a>, <a href="ho.BlessingOfKerexusaka.html">The Blessing of Kerexųsaka</a>, <a href="ho.BigEagleCaveMystery.html">Big Eagle Cave Mystery</a>, <a href="ho.ChiefWhoShotHisDaughter.html">The Chief Who Shot His Own Daughter</a>, <a href="ho.LittlePriestsGame.html">Little Priest's Game</a>, <a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html">Gatschet's Hocank hit’e (St. Peet ...)</a>, <a href="ho.PeyoteStory.html">A Peyote Story</a>;
107  mentioning the <strong>Fox</strong> (Mesquaki): <a href="ho.FirstFoxAndSaukWar.html"> The First Fox and Sauk War</a>, <a href="ho.FoxHocakWar.html">The Fox-Hocąk War</a>, <a href="ho.MasaxeWar.html">The Masaxe War</a>, <a href="ho.MesquakiMagician.html">The Mesquaki Magician</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-II.html">Annihilation of the Hocągara II</a>, <a href="ho.ChiefWhoShotHisDaughter.html">The Chief Who Shot His Own Daughter</a>, <a href="ho.LittlePriestsGame.html">Little Priest's Game</a>, <a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html">Gatschet's Hocank hit’e (Extracts ...)</a>;<span class="aj"> mentioning the <strong>Potawatomi</strong>: <a href="ho.FourthUniverse.html">Fourth Universe</a>, <a href="ho.TricksterWolfTurtleLark.html">Trickster, the Wolf, the Turtle, and the Meadow Lark</a>, <a href="ho.MijistegasPowwowMagic.html">Mijistéga’s Powwow Magic and How He Won the Trader's Store</a>, <a href="ho.MasaxeWar.html">The Masaxe War</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-II.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara II</a>, <a href="ho.FirstContact.html">First Contact (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.LittlePriestsGame.html">Little Priest's Game</a>, <a href="ho.Xununika.html">Xųnųnį́ka</a>;mentioning the <strong>French</strong>: <a href="ho.Introduction.html">Introduction</a>, <a href="ho.FoxHocakWar.html">The Fox-Hocąk War</a>, <a href="ho.FirstContact.html">First Contact</a>, <a href="ho.ShawneeProphetTellsHocagara.html">The Shawnee Prophet — What He Told the Hocągara</a>, <a href="ho.AnnihilationOfHocagara-I.html">The Annihilation of the Hocągara I (v. 2)</a>, <a href="ho.WaterspiritBlessesManixeteuga.html">A Waterspirit Blesses Mąnį́xete&rsquo;ų́ga</a>, <a href="ho.JarrotGetsHisName.html">How Jarrot Got His Name</a>, <a href="ho.GatschetHotchankHit'e.html">Gatschet's Hocank hit’e</a>, <a href="ho.CosmicAges.html">The Cosmic Ages of the Hocągara</a>, <a href="ho.TurtleAndMerchant.html">Turtle and the Merchan</a></span><a href="ho.TurtleAndMerchant.html">t</a>. </p>
108</body>
109</html>

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